The Evolution of Man, V.2 by Ernst Haeckel (leveled readers .txt) 📖

entry into the cloaca. The anterior or upper part of the pedicle, which runs to the navel in the ventral wall of the embryo, atrophies subsequently, and only a useless string-like relic of it is left as a rudimentary organ; that is the single vesico-umbilical ligament. To the right and left of it in the adult male are a couple of other rudimentary organs, the lateral vesico-umbilical ligaments. These are the degenerate string-like relics of the earlier umbilical arteries.

Though in man and all the other Amniotes the primitive kidneys are thus early replaced by the permanent kidneys, and these alone then act as urinary organs, all the parts of the former are by no means lost. The nephroducts become very important physiologically by being converted into the passages of the sexual glands. In all the Gnathostomes--or all the Vertebrates from the fishes up to man--a second similar canal develops beside the nephroduct at an early stage of embryonic evolution. The latter is usually called the Mullerian duct, after its discoverer, Johannes Muller, while the former is called the Wolffian duct. The origin of the Mullerian duct is still obscure; comparative anatomy and ontogeny seem to indicate that it originates by differentiation from the Wolffian duct. Perhaps it would be best to say: "The original primary nephroduct divides by differentiation (or longitudinal cleavage) into two secondary nephroducts, the Wolffian and the Mullerian ducts." The latter (Figure 2.387 m) lies just on the inner side of the former (Figure 2.387 w). Both open behind into the cloaca.

However uncertain the origin of the nephroduct and its two products, the Mullerian and the Wolffian ducts, may be, its later development is clear enough. In all the Gnathostomes the Wolffian duct is converted into the spermaduct, and the Mullerian duct into the oviduct. Only one of them is retained in each sex; the other either disappears altogether, or only leaves relics in the shape of rudimentary organs. In the male sex, in which the two Wolffian ducts become the spermaducts, we often find traces of the Mullerian ducts, which I have called "Rathke's canals" (Figure 2.394 c). In the female sex, in which the two Mullerian ducts form the oviducts, there are relics of the Wolffian ducts, which are called "the ducts of Gaertner."

(FIGURE 2.399. Female sexual organs of a Monotreme (Ornithorhynchus, Figure 2.269). o ovaries, t oviducts, u womb, sug urogenital sinus; at u apostrophe is the outlet of the two wombs, and between them the bladder (vu). cl cloaca. (From Gegenbaur.)

FIGURES 2.400 AND 2.401. Original position of the sexual glands in the ventral cavity of the human embryo (three months old).

FIGURE 2.400 male (natural size). h testicles, gh conducting ligament of the testicles, wg spermaduct, h bladder, uh inferior vena cava, nn accessory kidneys, n kidneys.

FIGURE 2.401 female, slightly magnified. r round maternal ligament (underneath it the bladder, over it the ovaries). r apostrophe kidneys, s accessory kidneys, c caecum, o small reticle, om large reticle (stomach between the two), l spleen. (From Kolliker.))

We obtain the most interesting information with regard to this remarkable evolution of the nephroducts and their association with the sexual glands from the Amphibia (Figures 2.390 to 2.395). The first structure of the nephroduct and its differentiation into Mullerian and Wolffian ducts are just the same in both sexes in the Amphibia, as in the mammal embryos (Figures 2.392 and 2.396). In the female Amphibia the Mullerian duct develops on either side into a large oviduct (Figure 2.393 od), while the Wolffian duct acts permanently as ureter (u). In the male Amphibia the Mullerian duct only remains as a rudimentary organ without any functional significance, as Rathke's canal (Figure 2.394 c); the Wolffian duct serves also as ureter, but at the same time as spermaduct, the sperm-canals (ve) that proceed from the testicles (t) entering the fore part of the primitive kidneys and combining there with the urinary canals.

In the mammals these permanent amphibian features are only seen as brief phases of the earlier period of embryonic development (Figure 2.392). Here the primitive kidneys, which act as excretory organs of urine throughout life in the amnion-less Vertebrates, are replaced in the mammals by the permanent kidneys. The real primitive kidneys disappear for the most part at an early stage of development, and only small relics of them remain. In the male mammal the epididymis develops from the uppermost part of the primitive kidney; in the female a useless rudimentary organ, the epovarium, is formed from the same part. The atrophied relic of the former is known as the paradidymis, that of the latter as the parovarium.

(FIGURE 2.402. Urogenital system of a human embryo of three inches in length, double natural size. h testicles, wg spermaducts, gh conducting ligament, p processus vaginalis, b bladder, au umbilical arteries, m mesorchium, d intestine, u ureter, n kidney, nn accessory kidney. (From Kollman.))

The Mullerian ducts undergo very important changes in the female mammal. The oviducts proper are developed only from their upper part; the lower part dilates into a spindle-shaped tube with thick muscular wall, in which the impregnated ovum develops into the embryo. This is the womb (uterus). At first the two wombs (Figure 2.399 u) are completely separate, and open into the cloaca on either side of the bladder (vu), as is still the case in the lowest living mammals, the Monotremes. But in the Marsupials a communication is opened between the two Mullerian ducts, and in the Placentals they combine below with the rudimentary Wolffian ducts to form a single "genital cord." The original independence of the two wombs and the vaginal canals formed from their lower ends are retained in many of the lower Placentals, but in the higher they gradually blend and form a single organ. The conjunction proceeds from below (or behind) upwards (or forwards). In many of the Rodents (such as the rabbit and squirrel) two separate wombs still open into the simple and single vaginal canal; but in others, and in the Carnivora, Cetacea, and Ungulates, the lower halves of the wombs have already fused into a single piece, though the upper halves (or "horns") are still separate ("two-horned" womb, uteris bicornis). In the bats and lemurs the "horns" are very short, and the lower common part is longer. Finally, in the apes and in man the blending of the two halves is complete, and there is only the one simple, pear-shaped uterine pouch, into which the oviducts open on each side. This simple uterus is a late evolutionary product, and is found ONLY in the ape and man.

(FIGURES 2.403 TO 2.406. Origin of human ova in the female ovary.

FIGURE 2.403. Vertical section of the ovary of a new-born female infant, a ovarian epithelium, b rudimentary string of ova, c young ova in the epithelium, d long string of ova with follicle-formation (Pfluger's tube), e group of young follicles, f isolated young follicle, g blood-vessels in connective tissue (stroma) of the ovary. In the strings the young ova are distinguished by their considerable size from the surrounding follicle-cells. (From Waldeyer.)

FIGURE 2.404. Two young Graafian follicles, isolated. In 1 the follicle-cells still form a simple, and in 2 a double, stratum round the young ovum; in 2 they are beginning to form the ovolemma or the zona pellucida (a).

FIGURES 2.405 AND 2.406. Two older Graafian follicles, in which fluid is beginning to accumulate inside the eccentrically thickened epithelial mass of the follicle-cells (Figure 2.405 with little, 2.406 with much, follicle-water). ei the young ovum, with embryonic vesicle and spot, zp ovolemma or zona pellucida, dp discus proligerus, formed of an accumulation of follicle-cells, which surround the ovum, ff follicle-liquid (liquor folliculi), gathered inside the stratified follicle-epithelium (fe), fk connective-tissue fibrous capsule of the Graafian follicle (theca folliculi).)

In the male mammals there is the same fusion of the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts at their lower ends. Here again they form a single genital cord (Figure 2.397 g), and this opens similarly into the original urogenital sinus, which develops from the lowest section of the bladder (v). But while in the male mammal the Wolffian ducts develop into the permanent spermaducts, there are only rudimentary relics left of the Mullerian ducts. The most notable of these is the "male womb" (uterus masculinus), which originates from the lowest fused part of the ducts, and corresponds to the female uterus. It is a small, flask-shaped vesicle without any physiological significance, which opens into the ureter between the two spermaducts and the prostate folds (vesicula prostatica).

(FIGURE 2.407. A ripe human Graafian follicle. a the mature ovum, b the surrounding follicle-cells, c the epithelial cells of the follicle, d the fibrous membrane of the follicle, e its outer surface.)

The internal sexual organs of the mammals undergo very distinctive changes of position. At first the germinal glands of both sexes lie deep inside the ventral cavity, at the inner edge of the primitive kidneys (Figures 2.386 g and 2.392 k), attached to the vertebral column by a short mesentery (mesorchium in the male, mesovarium in the female). But this primary arrangement is retained permanently only in the Monotremes (and the lower Vertebrates). In all other mammals (both Marsupials and Placentals) they leave their original cradle and travel more or less far down (or behind), following the direction of a ligament that goes from the primitive kidneys to the inguinal region of the ventral wall. This is the inguinal ligament of the primitive kidneys, known in the male as the Hunterian ligament (Figure 2.400 gh), and in the female as the "round maternal ligament" (Figure 2.401 r). In woman the ovaries travel more or less towards the small pelvis, or enter into it altogether. In the male the testicles pass out of the ventral cavity, and penetrate by the inguinal canal into a sac-shaped fold of the outer skin. When the right and left folds ("sexual swellings") join together they form the scrotum. The various mammals bring before us the successive stages of this displacement. In the elephant and the whale the testicles descend very little, and remain underneath the kidneys. In many of the rodents and carnassia they enter the inguinal canal. In most of the higher mammals they pass through this into the scrotum. As a rule, the inguinal canal closes up. When it remains open the testicles may periodically pass into the scrotum, and withdraw into the ventral cavity again in time of rut (as in many of the marsupials, rodents, bats, etc.).

The structure of the external sexual organs, the copulative organs that convey the fecundating sperm from the male to the female organism in the act of copulation, is also peculiar to the mammals. There are no organs of this character in most of the other Vertebrates. In those that live in water (such as the Acrania and Cyclostomes, and most of the fishes) the ova and sperm-cells are simply ejected into the water, where their conjunction and fertilisation are left to chance. But in many of the fishes and amphibia, which are viviparous, there is a direct conveyance of the male sperm into the female body; and this is the case with all the Amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals). In these the urinary and sexual organs always open originally into the last section of the rectum, which thus forms a cloaca (

Chapter 2.

22). Among the mammals this arrangement is permanent only in the Monotremes, which take their name from it (Figure 2.399 cl). In all the other mammals a frontal partition is developed in the cloaca (in the human embryo about the beginning of the third month), and this divides it into two cavities. The anterior cavity receives the urogenital canal, and is the sole outlet of the urine and the sexual products; the hind or anus-cavity passes the excrements only.

Even before this partition has been formed in the Marsupials and Placentals, we see the first trace of the external sexual organs. First a conical protuberance rises at the anterior border of the cloaca-outlet--the sexual prominence (phallus, Figure 2.402