The Evolution of Man, V.2 by Ernst Haeckel (leveled readers .txt) 📖

(FIGURES 2.222 TO 2.224. Transverse sections of young Amphioxus-larvae (diagrammatic, from Ralph.) (Cf. also Figure 2.216.) In Figure 2.222 there is free communication from without with the gut-cavity (D) through the gill-clefts (K). In Figure 2.223 the lateral folds of the body-wall, or the gill-covers, which grow downwards, are formed. In Figure 2.224 these lateral folds have united underneath and joined their edges in the middle line of the ventral side (R seam). The respiratory water now passes from the gut-cavity (D) into the mantle-cavity (A). The letters have the same meaning throughout: N medullary tube, Ch chorda, M lateral muscles, Lh body-cavity, G part of the body-cavity in which the sexual organs are subsequently formed. D gut-cavity, clothed with the gut-gland layer (a). A mantle-cavity, K gill-clefts, b = E epidermis, E1 the same as visceral epithelium of the mantle-cavity, E2 as parietal epithelium of the mantle-cavity.)

At an early stage of embryonic development the structure of the Amphioxus-larva is substantially the same as the ideal picture we have previously formed of the "Primitive Vertebrate" (Figures 1.98 to 1.102). But the body afterwards undergoes various modifications, especially in the fore-part. These modifications do not concern us, as they depend on special adaptations, and do not affect the hereditary vertebrate type. When the free-swimming Amphioxus-larva is three months old, it abandons its pelagic habits and changes into the young animal that lives in the sand. In spite of its smallness (one-eighth of an inch), it has substantially the same structure as the adult. As regards the remaining organs of the Amphioxus, we need only mention that the gonads or sexual glands are developed very late, immediately out of the inner cell-layer of the body-cavity. Although we can find afterwards no continuation of the body-cavity (Figure 2.216 U) in the lateral walls of the mantle-cavity, in the gill-covers or mantle-folds (Figure 2.224 U), there is one present in the beginning (Figure 2.224 Lh). The sexual cells are formed below, at the bottom of this continuation (Figure 2.224 S). For the rest, the subsequent development into the adult Amphioxus of the larva we have followed is so simple that we need not go further into it here.

We may now turn to the embryology of the Ascidia, an animal that seems to stand so much lower and to be so much more simply organised, remaining for the greater part of its life attached to the bottom of the sea like a shapeless lump. It was a fortunate accident that Kowalevsky first examined just those larger specimens of the Ascidiae that show most clearly the relationship of the vertebrates to the invertebrates, and the larvae of which behave exactly like those of the Amphioxus in the first stages of development. This resemblance is so close in the main features that we have only to repeat what we have already said of the ontogenesis of the Amphioxus.

The ovum of the larger Ascidia (Phallusia, Cynthia, etc.) is a simple round cell of 1/250 to 1/125 of an inch in diameter. In the thick fine-grained yelk we find a clear round germinal vesicle of about 1/750 of an inch in diameter, and this encloses a small embryonic spot or nucleolus. Inside the membrane that surrounds the ovum, the stem-cell of the Ascidia, after fecundation, passes through just the same metamorphoses as the stem-cell of the Amphioxus. It undergoes total segmentation; it divides into two, four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two cells, and so on. By continued total cleavage the morula, or mulberry-shaped cluster of cells, is formed. Fluid gathers inside it, and thus we get once more a globular vesicle (the blastula); the wall of this is a single stratum of cells, the blastoderm. A real gastrula (a simple bell-gastrula) is formed from the blastula by invagination, in the same way as in the amphioxus.

Up to this there is no definite ground in the embryology of the Ascidiae for bringing them into close relationship with the Vertebrates; the same gastrula is formed in the same way in many other animals of different stems. But we now find an embryonic process that is peculiar to the Vertebrates, and that proves irrefragably the affinity of the Ascidiae to the Vertebrates. From the epidermis of the gastrula a medullary tube is formed on the dorsal side, and, between this and the primitive gut, a chorda; these are the organs that are otherwise only found in Vertebrates. The formation of these very important organs takes place in the Ascidia-gastrula in precisely the same way as in that of the Amphioxus. In the Ascidia (as in the other case) the oval gastrula is first flattened on one side--the subsequent dorsal side. A groove or furrow (the medullary groove) is sunk in the middle line of the flat surface, and two parallel longitudinal swellings arise on either side from the skin layer. These medullary swellings join together over the furrow, and form a tube; in this case, again, the neural or medullary tube is at first open in front, and connected with the primitive gut behind by the neurenteric canal. Further, in the Ascidia-larva also the two permanent apertures of the alimentary canal only appear later, as independent and new formations. The permanent mouth does not develop from the primitive mouth of the gastrula; this primitive mouth closes up, and the later anus is formed near it by invagination from without, on the hinder end of the body, opposite to the aperture of the medullary tube.

During these important processes, that take place in just the same way in the Amphioxus, a tail-like projection grows out of the posterior end of the larva-body, and the larva folds itself up within the round ovolemma in such a way that the dorsal side is curved and the tail is forced on to the ventral side. In this tail is developed--starting from the primitive gut--a cylindrical string of cells, the fore end of which pushes into the body of the larva, between the alimentary canal and the neural canal, and is no other than the chorda dorsalis. This important organ had hitherto been found only in the Vertebrates, not a single trace of it being discoverable in the Invertebrates. At first the chorda only consists of a single row of large entodermic cells. It is afterwards composed of several rows of cells. In the Ascidia-larva, also, the chorda develops from the dorsal middle part of the primitive gut, while the two coelom-pouches detach themselves from it on both sides. The simple body-cavity is formed by the coalescence of the two.

When the Ascidia-larva has attained this stage of development it begins to move about in the ovolemma. This causes the membrane to burst. The larva emerges from it, and swims about in the sea by means of its oar-like tail. These free-swimming larvae of the Ascidia have been known for a long time. They were first observed by Darwin during his voyage round the world in 1833. They resemble tadpoles in outward appearance, and use their tails as oars, as the tadpoles do. However, this lively and highly-developed condition does not last long. At first there is a progressive development; the foremost part of the medullary tube enlarges into a brain, and inside this two single sense-organs are developed, a dorsal auditory vesicle and a ventral eye. Then a heart is formed on the ventral side of the animal, or the lower wall of the gut, in the same simple form and at the same spot at which the heart is developed in man and all the other vertebrates. In the lower muscular wall of the gut we find a weal-like thickening, a solid, spindle-shaped string of cells, which becomes hollow in the centre; it begins to contract in different directions, now forward and now backward, as is the case with the adult Ascidia. In this way the sanguineous fluid accumulated in the hollow muscular tube is driven in alternate directions into the blood-vessels, which develop at both ends of the cardiac tube. One principal vessel runs along the dorsal side of the gut, another along its ventral side. The former corresponds to the aorta and the dorsal vessel in the worms. The other corresponds to the subintestinal vein and the ventral vessel of the worms.

With the formation of these organs the progressive development of the Ascidia comes to an end, and degeneration sets in. The free-swimming larva sinks to the floor of the sea, abandons its locomotive habits, and attaches itself to stones, marine plants, mussel-shells, corals, and other objects; this is done with the part of the body that was foremost in movement. The attachment is effected by a number of out-growths, usually three, which can be seen even in the free-swimming larva. The tail is lost, as there is no further use for it. It undergoes a fatty degeneration, and disappears with the chorda dorsalis. The tailless body changes into an unshapely tube, and, by the atrophy of some parts and the modification of others, gradually assumes the appearance we have already described.

(FIGURE 2.225. An Appendicaria (Copelata), seen from the left. m mouth, k branchial gut, o gullet, v stomach, a anus, n brain (ganglion above the gullet), g auditory vesicle, f ciliated groove under the gills, h heart, t testicles, e ovary, c chorda, s tail.)

Among the living Tunicates there is a very interesting group of small animals that remain throughout life at the stage of development of the tailed, free Ascidia-larva, and swim about briskly in the sea by means of their broad oar-tail. These are the remarkable Copelata (Appendicaria and Vexillaria, Figure 2.225). They are the only living Vertebrates that have throughout life a chorda dorsalis and a neural string above it; the latter must be regarded as the prolongation of the cerebral ganglion and the equivalent of the medullary tube. Their branchial gut also opens directly outwards by a pair of branchial clefts. These instructive Copelata, comparable to permanent Ascidia-larvae, come next to the extinct Prochordonia, those ancient worms which we must regard as the common ancestors of the Tunicates and Vertebrates. The chorda of the Appendicaria is a long, cylindrical string (Figure 2.225 c), and serves as an attachment for the muscles that work the flat oar-tail.

Among the various modifications which the Ascidia-larva undergoes after its establishment at the sea-floor, the most interesting (after the loss of the axial rod) is the atrophy of one of its chief organs, the medullary tube. In the Amphioxus the spinal marrow continues to develop, but in the Ascidia the tube soon shrinks into a small and insignificant nervous ganglion that lies above the mouth and the gill-crate, and is in accord with the extremely slight mental power of the animal. This insignificant relic of the medullary tube seems to be quite beyond comparison with the nervous centre of the vertebrate, yet it started from the same structure as the spinal cord of the Amphioxus. The sense-organs that had been developed in the fore part of the neural tube are also lost; no trace of which can be found in the adult Ascidia. On the other hand, the alimentary canal becomes a most extensive organ. It divides presently into two sections--a wide fore or branchial gut that serves for respiration, and a narrower hind or hepatic gut that accomplishes digestion. The branchial or head-gut of the Ascidia is small at first, and opens directly outwards only by a couple of lateral ducts or gill-clefts--a permanent arrangement in the Copelata. The gill-clefts are developed in the same way as in the Amphioxus. As their number greatly increases we get a large gill-crate, pierced like lattice work. In the middle line of its ventral side we find the hypobranchial groove. The mantle or cloaca-cavity (the atrium) that surrounds the gill-crate is also formed in the same way in the Ascidia as in the Amphioxus. The ejection-opening of this peribranchial cavity corresponds to the branchial pore of the Amphioxus. In the adult Ascidia the branchial gut and the heart on