The Evolution of Man, V.1. by Ernst Haeckel (most read book in the world .TXT) 📖

lip is therefore the upper and more forward, the ventral lip the lower and hinder. In the latter, at the ventral passage of the entoderm into the ectoderm, there lie side by side a pair of very large cells, one to the right and one to the left (Figure 1.39 p): these are the important polar cells of the primitive mouth, or "the primitive cells of the mesoderm." In consequence of these considerable variations arising in the course of the gastrulation, the primitive uni-axial form of the archigastrula in the amphioxus has already become tri-axial, and thus the two-sidedness, or bilateral symmetry, of the vertebrate body has already been determined. This has been transmitted from the amphioxus to all the other modified gastrula-forms of the vertebrate stem.

Apart from this bilateral structure, the gastrula of the amphioxus resembles the typical archigastrula of the lower animals (Figures 1.30 to 1.36) in developing the two primary germinal layers from a single layer of cells. This is clearly the oldest and original form of the metazoic embryo. Although the animals I have mentioned belong to the most diverse classes, they nevertheless agree with each other, and many more animal forms, in having retained to the present day, by a conservative heredity, this palingenetic form of gastrulation which they have from their earliest common ancestors. But this is not the case with the great majority of the animals. With these the original embryonic process has been gradually more or less altered in the course of millions of years by adaptation to new conditions of development. Both the segmentation of the ovum and the subsequent gastrulation have in this way been considerably changed. In fact, these variations have become so great in the course of time that the segmentation was not rightly understood in most animals, and the gastrula was unrecognised. It was not until I had made an extensive comparative study, lasting a considerable time (in the years 1866 to 1875), in animals of the most diverse classes, that I succeeded in showing the same common typical process in these apparently very different forms of gastrulation, and tracing them all to one original form. I regard all those that diverge from the primary palingenetic gastrulation as secondary, modified, and cenogenetic. The more or less divergent form of gastrula that is produced may be called a secondary, modified gastrula, or a metagastrula. The reader will find a scheme of these different kinds of segmentation and gastrulation at the close of this chapter.

By far the most important process that determines the various cenogenetic forms of gastrulation is the change in the nutrition of the ovum and the accumulation in it of nutritive yelk. By this we understand various chemical substances (chiefly granules of albumin and fat-particles) which serve exclusively as reserve-matter or food for the embryo. As the metazoic embryo in its earlier stages of development is not yet able to obtain its food and so build up the frame, the necessary material has to be stored up in the ovum. Hence we distinguish in the ova two chief elements--the active formative yelk (protoplasm) and the passive food-yelk (deutoplasm, wrongly spoken of as "the yelk"). In the little palingenetic ova, the segmentation of which we have already considered, the yelk-granules are so small and so regularly distributed in the protoplasm of the ovum that the even and repeated cleavage is not affected by them. But in the great majority of the animal ova the food-yelk is more or less considerable, and is stored in a certain part of the ovum, so that even in the unfertilised ovum the "granary" can clearly be distinguished from the formative plasm. As a rule, the formative-yelk (with the germinal vesicle) then usually gathers at one pole and the food-yelk at the other. The first is the ANIMAL, and the second the VEGETAL, pole of the vertical axis of the ovum.

(FIGURE 1.39. Gastrula of the amphioxus, seen from left side (diagrammatic median section). (From Hatschek.) g primitive gut, u primitive mouth, p peristomal pole-cells, i entoderm, e ectoderm, d dorsal side, v ventral side.)

In these "telolecithal" ova, or ova with the yelk at one end (for instance, in the cyclostoma and amphibia), the gastrulation then usually takes place in such a way that in the cleavage of the impregnated ovum the animal (usually the upper) half splits up more quickly than the vegetal (lower). The contractions of the active protoplasm, which effect this continual cleavage of the cells, meet a greater resistance in the lower vegetal half from the passive deutoplasm than in the upper animal half. Hence we find in the latter more but smaller, and in the former fewer but larger, cells. The animal cells produce the external, and the vegetal cells the internal, germinal layer.

Although this unequal segmentation of the cyclostoma, ganoids, and amphibia seems at first sight to differ from the original equal segmentation (for instance, in the monoxenia, Figure 1.29), they both have this in common, that the cleavage process throughout affects the WHOLE cell; hence Remak called it TOTAL segmentation, and the ova in question holoblastic, or "whole-cleaving." It is otherwise with the second chief group of ova, which he distinguished from these as meroblastic, or "partially-cleaving ": to this class belong the familiar large eggs of birds and reptiles, and of most fishes. The inert mass of the passive food-yelk is so large in these cases that the protoplasmic contractions of the active yelk cannot effect any further cleavage. In consequence, there is only a partial segmentation. While the protoplasm in the animal section of the ovum continues briskly to divide, multiplying the nuclei, the deutoplasm in the vegetal section remains more or less undivided; it is merely consumed as food by the forming cells. The larger the accumulation of food, the more restricted is the process of segmentation. It may, however, continue for some time (even after the gastrulation is more or less complete) in the sense that the vegetal cell-nuclei distributed in the deutoplasm slowly increase by cleavage; as each of them is surrounded by a small quantity of protoplasm, it may afterwards appropriate a portion of the food-yelk, and thus form a real "yelk-cell" (merocyte). When this vegetal cell-formation continues for a long time, after the two primary germinal layers have been formed, it takes the name of the "after-segmentation."

The meroblastic ova are only found in the larger and more highly developed animals, and only in those whose embryo needs a longer time and richer nourishment within the foetal membranes. According as the yelk-food accumulates at the centre or at the side of the ovum, we distinguish two groups of dividing ova, periblastic and discoblastic. In the periblastic the food-yelk is in the centre, enclosed inside the ovum (hence they are also called "centrolecithal" ova): the formative yelk surrounds the food-yelk, and so suffers itself a superficial cleavage. This is found among the articulates (crabs, spiders, insects, etc.). In the discoblastic ova the food-yelk gathers at one side, at the vegetal or lower pole of the vertical axis, while the nucleus of the ovum and the great bulk of the formative yelk lie at the upper or animal pole (hence these ova are also called "telolecithal"). In these cases the cleavage of the ovum begins at the upper pole, and leads to the formation of a dorsal discoid embryo. This is the case with all meroblastic vertebrates, most fishes, the reptiles and birds, and the oviparous mammals (the monotremes).

The gastrulation of the discoblastic ova, which chiefly concerns us, offers serious difficulties to microscopic investigation and philosophic consideration. These, however, have been mastered by the comparative embryological research which has been conducted by a number of distinguished observers during the last few decades--especially the brothers Hertwig, Rabl, Kupffer, Selenka, Ruckert, Goette, Rauber, etc. These thorough and careful studies, aided by the most perfect modern improvements in technical method (in tinting and dissection), have given a very welcome support to the views which I put forward in my work, On the Gastrula and the Segmentation of the Animal Ovum [not translated], in 1875. As it is very important to understand these views and their phylogenetic foundation clearly, not only as regards evolution in general, but particularly in connection with the genesis of man, I will give here a brief statement of them as far as they concern the vertebrate-stem:--

All the vertebrates, including man, are phylogenetically (or genealogically) related--that is, are members of one single natural stem. Consequently, the embryonic features in their individual development must also have a genetic connection. As the gastrulation of the amphioxus shows the original palingenetic form in its simplest features, that of the other vertebrates must have been derived from it. The cenogenetic modifications of the latter are more appreciable the more food-yelk is stored up in the ovum. Although the mass of the food-yelk may be very large in the ova of the discoblastic vertebrates, nevertheless in every case a blastula is developed from the morula, as in the holoblastic ova. Also, in every case, the gastrula develops from the blastula by curving or invagination. The cavity which is produced in the foetus by this curving is, in each case, the primitive gut (progaster), and its opening the primitive mouth (prostoma). The food-yelk, whether large or small, is always stored in the ventral wall of the primitive gut; the cells (called "merocytes") which may be formed in it subsequently (by "after-segmentation") also belong to the inner germinal layer, like the cells which immediately enclose the primitive gut-cavity. The primitive mouth, which at first lies below at the lower pole of the vertical axis, is forced, by the growth of the yelk, backwards and then upwards, towards the dorsal side of the embryo; the vertical axis of the primitive gut is thus gradually converted into horizontal. The primitive mouth is closed sooner or later in all the vertebrates, and does not evolve into the permanent mouth-aperture; it rather corresponds to the "properistoma," or region of the anus. From this important point the formation of the middle germinal layer proceeds, between the two primary layers.

The wide comparative studies of the scientists I have named have further shown that in the case of the discoblastic higher vertebrates (the three classes of amniotes) the primitive mouth of the embryonic disc, which was long looked for in vain, is found always, and is nothing else than the familiar "primitive groove." Of this we shall see more as we proceed. Meantime we realise that gastrulation may be reduced to one and the same process in all the vertebrates. Moreover, the various forms it takes in the invertebrates can always be reduced to one of the four types of segmentation described above. In relation to the distinction between total and partial segmentation, the grouping of the various forms is as follows:--

Palingenetic (primitive segmentation)

1.1. Equal segmentation (bell-gastrula).

1.1.A. Total segmentation (without independent food-yelk).

Cenogenetic segmentation (modified by adaptation).

2.2. Unequal segmentation (hooded gastrula).

2.2.A. Total segmentation (without independent food-yelk).

2.3. Discoid segmentation (discoid gastrula).

2.3.B. Partial segmentation (with independent food-yelk).

2.4. Superficial segmentation (spherical gastrula).

2.4.B. Partial segmentation (with independent food-yelk).

The lowest metazoa we know--namely, the lower zoophyta (sponges, simple polyps, etc.)--remain throughout life at a stage of development which differs little from the gastrula; their whole body consists of two layers of cells. This is a fact of extreme importance. We see that man, and also other vertebrates, pass quickly through a stage of development in which they consist of two layers, just as these lower zoophyta do throughout life. If we apply our biogenetic law to the matter, we at once reach this important conclusion. "Man and all the other animals which pass through the two-layer stage, or gastrula-form, in the course of their embryonic development, must descend from a primitive simple stem-form, the whole body of which consisted throughout life (as is the case with the lower zoophyta to-day) merely of two cell-strata or germinal layers." We will call this primitive stem-form, with which we shall deal more fully later on, the gastraea--that is to say, "primitive-gut animal."

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