A History of China by Wolfram Eberhard (read a book txt) 📖

p. 262: For the coastal salt-merchants I used Lo Hsiang-lin's work.

p. 263: On the rifles I used P. Pelliot. There is a large literature on the use of explosives and the invention of cannons, especially L.C. Goodrich and Feng Chia-sheng in Isis, vol. 36, 1946 and 39, 1948; also G. Sarton, Li Ch'iao-p'ing, J. Pru[vs]ek, J. Needham, and M. Ishida; a comparative, general study is by K. Huuri, Studia Orientalia vol. 9, 1941.—For the earliest contacts of Wang with Portuguese, I used Chang Wei-hua's monograph.—While there is no satisfactory, comprehensive study in English on Wang, for Lu Hsiang-shan the book by Huang Siu-ch'i, Lu Hsiang-shan, a Twelfth-century Chinese Idealist Philosopher, New Haven 1944, can be used.

p. 264: For Tao-yen, I used work done by David Chan.—Large parts of the Yung-lo ta-tien are now lost (Kuo Po-kung, Yüan T'ung-li studied this problem).

p. 265: Yen-ta's Mongol name is Altan Qan (died 1582), leader of the Tümet. He is also responsible for the re-introduction of Lamaism into Mongolia (1574).—For the border trade I used Hou Jen-chih; for the Shansi bankers Ch'en Ch'i-t'ien and P. Maybon. For the beginnings of the Manchu see Fr. Michael, The Origins of Manchu Rule in China, Baltimore 1942.

p. 266: M. Ricci's diary (Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century. The Journals of M. Ricci, transl. by L.J. Gallagher, New York 1953) gives much insight into the life of Chinese officials in this period. Recently, J. Needham has tried to show that Ricci and his followers did not bring much which was not already known in China, but that they actually attempted to prevent the Chinese from learning about the Copernican theory.

p. 267: For Coxinga I used M. Eder's study.—The Szechwan rebellion was led by Chang Hsien-chung (1606-1647); I used work done by James B. Parsons. Cheng T'ien-t'ing, Sun Yueh and others have recently published the important documents concerning all late Ming peasant rebellions.—For the Tung-lin academy see Ch. O. Hucker in J.K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957. A different interpretation is indicated by Shang Yüeh in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3.

p. 268: Work on the "academies" (shu-yüan) in the earlier time is done by Ho Yu-shen.

pp. 273-4: Based upon my own, as yet unfinished research.

p. 274: The population of 1953 as given here, includes Chinese outside of mainland China. The population of mainland China was 582.6 millions. If the rate of increase of about 2 per cent per year has remained the same, the population of mainland China in 1960 may be close to 680 million. In general see P.T. Ho. Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953, Cambridge, Mass., 1960.

p. 276: Based upon my own research.—A different view of the development of Chinese industry is found in Norman Jacobs, Modern Capitalism and Eastern Asia, Hong Kong 1958. Jacobs attempted a comparison of China with Japan and with Europe. Different again is Marion Levy and Shih Kuo-heng, The Rise of the Modern Chinese Business Class, New York 1949. Both books are influenced by the sociological theories of T. Parsons.

p. 277: The Dzungars (Dsunghar; Chun-ko-erh) are one of the four Ölöt (Oirat) groups. I am here using studies by E. Haenisch and W. Fuchs.

p. 278: Tibetan-Chinese relations have been studied by L. Petech, China and Tibet in the Early 18th Century, Leiden 1950. A collection of data is found in M.W. Fisher and L.E. Rose, England, India, Nepal, Tibet, China, 1765-1958, Berkeley 1959. For diplomatic relations and tributary systems of this period, I referred to J.K. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yü.

p. 279: For Ku Yen-wu, I used the work by H. Wilhelm.—A man who deserves special mention in this period is the scholar Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695) as the first Chinese who discussed the possibility of a non-monarchic form of government in his treatise of 1662. For him see Lin Mou-sheng, Men and Ideas, New York 1942, and especially W.T. de Bary in J.K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957.

pp. 280-1: On Liang see now J.R. Levenson, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China, London 1959.

p. 282: It should also be pointed out that the Yung-cheng emperor was personally more inclined towards Lamaism.—The Kalmuks are largely identical with the above-mentioned Ölöt.

p. 286: The existence of hong is known since 1686, see P'eng Tse-i and Wang Chu-an's recent studies. For details on foreign trade see H.B. Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China 1635-1834, Oxford 1926, 4 vols., and J.K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 2 vols.—For Lin I used G.W. Overdijkink's study.

p. 287: On customs read St. F. Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast 1950.

p. 288: For early industry see A. Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916), Cambridge, Mass., 1958.

p. 289: The Chinese source materials for the Mohammedan revolts have recently been published, but an analysis of the importance of the revolts still remains to be done.—On T'ai-p'ing much has been published, especially in the last years in China, so that all documents are now available. I used among other studies, details brought out by Lo Hsiang-lin and Jen Yu-wen.

p. 291: For Tsêng Kuo-fan see W.J. Hail, Tsêng Kuo-fan and the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion, New Haven 1927, but new research on him is about to be published.—The Nien-fei had some connection with the White Lotus, and were known since 1814, see Chiang Siang-tseh, The Nien Rebellion, Seattle 1954.

p. 292: Little is known about Salars, Dungans and Yakub Beg's rebellion, mainly because relevant Turkish sources have not yet been studied. On Salars see L. Schram, The Monguors of Kansu, Philadelphia 1954, p. 23 and P. Pelliot; on Dungans see I. Grebe.

p. 293: On Tso Tsung-t'ang see G. Ch'en, Tso Tung T'ang, Pioneer Promotor of the Modern Dockyard and Woollen Mill in China, Peking 1938, and Yenching Journal of Soc. Studies, vol. I.

p. 294: For the T'ung-chih period, see now Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservativism. The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874, Stanford 1957.

p. 295: Ryukyu is Chinese: Liu-ch'iu; Okinawa is one of the islands of this group.—Formosa is Chinese: T'ai-wan (Taiwan). Korea is Chinese: Chao-hsien, Japanese: Chôsen.

p. 297: M.C. Wright has shown the advisers around the ruler before the Empress Dowager realized the severity of the situation.—Much research is under way to study the beginning of industrialization of Japan, and my opinions have changed greatly, due to the research done by Japanese scholars and such Western scholars as H. Rosovsky and Th. Smith. The eminent role of the lower aristocracy has been established. Similar research for China has not even seriously started. My remarks are entirely preliminary.

p. 298: For K'ang Yo-wei, I use work done by O. Franke and others. See M.E. Cameron, The Reform Movement in China, 1898-1921, Stanford 1921. The best bibliography for this period is J.K. Fairbank and Liu Kwang-ching, Modern China: A Bibliographical Guide to Chinese Works, 1898-1937, Cambridge, Mass., 1950. The political history of the time, as seen by a Chinese scholar, is found in Li Chien-nung, The Political History of China 1840-1928, Princeton 1956.—For the social history of this period see Chang Chung-li, The Chinese Gentry, Seattle 1955.—For the history of Tz[)u] Hsi Bland-Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager, Peking 1939 (Third ed.) is antiquated, but still used. For some of K'ang Yo-wei's ideas, see now K'ang Yo-wei: Ta T'ung Shu. The One World Philosophy of K'ang Yu Wei, London 1957.

Chapter Eleven

p. 305: I rely here partly upon W. Franke's recent studies. For Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien; also called Sun Chung-shan) see P. Linebarger, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Republic, Cambridge, Mass., 1925 and his later The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen, Baltimore 1937.—Independently, Atatürk in Turkey developed a similar theory of the growth of democracy.

p. 306: On student activities see Kiang Wen-han, The Ideological Background of the Chinese Student Movement, New York 1948.

p. 307: On Hu Shih see his own The Chinese Renaissance, Chicago 1934 and J. de Francis, Nationalism and Language Reform in China, Princeton 1950.

p. 310: The declaration of Independence of Mongolia had its basis in the early treaty of the Mongols with the Manchus (1636): "In case the Tai Ch'ing Dynasty falls, you will exist according to previous basic laws" (R.J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia, Wiesbaden 1959, p. 4).

p. 315: For the military activities see F.F. Liu, A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949, Princeton 1956. A Marxist analysis of the 1927 events is Manabendra Nath Roy, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China, Calcutta 1946; the relevant documents are translated in C. Brandt, B. Schwartz, J.K. Fairbank, A Documentary History of Chinese Communism, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.

Chapter Twelve

For Mao Tse-tung, see B. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao, second ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1958. For Mao's early years; see J.E. Rue, Mao Tse-tung in Opposition, 1927-1935, Stanford 1966. For the civil war, see L.M. Chassin, The Communist Conquest of China: A History of the Civil War, 1945-1949, Cambridge, Mass., 1965. For brief information on communist society, see Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell, The China Reader, vol. 3, Communist China, New York 1967. For problems of organization, see Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China, Berkeley 1966. For cultural and political problems, see Ho Ping-ti, China in Crisis, vol. 1, China's Heritage and the Communist Political System, Chicago 1968. For a sympathetic view of rural life in communist China, see J. Myrdal, Report from a Chinese Village, New York 1966; for Taiwanese village life, see Bernard Gallin, Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A Chinese Village in Change, Berkeley 1966.

  Abahai, ruler
  Abdication
  Aborigines
  Absolutism (see Despotism, Dictator, Emperor, Monarchy)
  Academia Sinica
  Academies
  Administration;
    provincial
    (see Army, Feudalism, Bureaucracy)
  Adobe (Mud bricks)
  Adoptions
  Afghanistan
  Africa
  Agriculture;
    development;
    Origin of;
    of Shang;
    shifting (denshiring)
    (see Wheat, Millet, Rice, Plough, Irrigation, Manure, Canals,
      Fallow)
  An Ti, ruler of Han
  Ainu, tribes
  Ala-shan mountain range
  Alchemy (see Elixir)
  Alexander the Great
  America (see United States)
  Amithabha, god
  Amur, river
  An Chi-yeh, rebel
  An Lu-shan, rebel
  Analphabetism
  Anarchists
  Ancestor, cult
  Aniko, sculptor
  Animal style
  Annam (Vietnam)
  Anyang (Yin-ch'ü)
  Arabia;
    Arabs
  Architecture
  Aristocracy (see Nobility, Feudalism)
  Army, cost of;
    organization of;
    size of;
    Tibetan
    (see War, Militia, tu-tu, pu-ch'ü)
  Art, Buddhist (see Animal style, Architecture, Pottery, Painting,
    Sculpture, Wood-cut)
  Arthashastra, book, attributed to Kautilya
  Artisans;
    Organizations of
    (see Guilds, Craftsmen)
  Assimilation (see Colonization)
  Astronomy
  Austroasiatics
  Austronesians
  Avars, tribe (see Juan-juan)
  Axes, prehistoric
  Axis, policy

  Babylon
  Baghdad, city
  Balasagun, city
  Ballads
  Banks
  Banner organization
  Barbarians (Foreigners)
  Bastards
  Bath
  Beg, title
  Beggar
  Bengal
  Boat festival
  Bokhara (Bukhara), city
  Bon, religion
  Bondsmen (see pu-ch'ü, Serfs, Feudalism)
  Book, printing;
    B burning
  Böttger, inventor
  Boxer rebellion
  Boycott
  Brahmans, Indian caste
  Brain drain
  Bronze (see Metal, Copper)
  Brothel (Tea-house)
  Buddha;
    Buddhism
    (see Ch'an, Vinaya, Sects, Amithabha, Maitreya, Hinayana,
  Mahayana, Monasteries, Church, Pagoda, Monks, Lamaism)
  Budget (see Treasury, Inflation, Deflation)
  Bullfights
  Bureaucracy;
    religious B
    (see Administration; Army)
  Burgher (liang-min)
  Burma
  Businessmen (see Merchants, Trade)
  Byzantium

  Calcutta, city
  Caliph (Khaliph)
  Cambodia
  Canals;
    Imperial C
    (see Irrigation)
  Cannons
  Canton (Kuang-chou), city
  Capital of Empire (see Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, etc.)
  Capitalism (see Investments, Banks, Money, Economy, etc.)
  Capitulations (privileges of foreign nations)
  Caravans (see Silk road, Trade)
  Carpet
  Castes, (see Brahmans)
  Castiglione, G., painter
  Cattle, breeding
  Cavalry, (see Horse)
  Cave temples (see Lung-men, Yün-kang, Tunhuang)
  Censorate
  Censorship
  Census (see Population)
  Central Asia (see Turkestan, Sinkiang, Tarim, City States)
  Champa, State
  Ch'an (Zen), meditative Buddhism
  Chan-kuo Period (Contending States)
  Chancellor
  Ch'ang-an, capital of China (see Sian)
  Chang Ch'ien, ambassador
  Chang Chü-chan, teacher
  Chang Hsien-chung, rebel
  Chang Hsüeh-hang, war lord
  Chang Ling, popular leader
  Chang Ti, ruler
  Chang Tsai, philosopher
  Chang Tso-lin, war lord
  Chao, state;
    Earlier Chao;
    Later Chao
  Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai Tsu), ruler
  Chao Mêng-fu, painter
  Charters
  Chefoo Convention
  Ch'en, dynasty
  Ch'en Pa-hsien, ruler
  Ch'en Tu-hsiu, intellectual
  Ch'eng Hao, philosopher
  Cheng Ho, navy commander
  Ch'eng I, philosopher
  Cheng-i-chiao, religion
  Ch'eng Ti, ruler of Han;
    ruler of Chin
  Ch'eng Tsu, ruler of Manchu
  Ch'engtu, city
  Ch'i, state;
    short dynasty;
    Northern Ch'i
  Ch'i-fu, clan
  Chi-nan, city
  Ch'i-tan (see Kitan)
  Ch'i Wan-nien, leader
  Chia, clan
  Chia-ch'ing, period
  Chia Ss[)u]-tao, politician
  Ch'iang, tribes, (see Tanguts)
  Chiang Kai-shek, president
  Ch'ien-lung, period
  ch'ien-min (commoners),
  Chin, dynasty, (see Juchên);
    dynasty;
    Eastern Chin dynasty;
    Later Chin dynasty,
  Ch'in, state;
    Ch'in, dynasty;
    Earlier Ch'in dynasty;
    Later Ch'in dynasty;
    Western Ch'in dynasty
  Ch'in K'ui, politician
  Chinese, origin of
  Ching Fang, scholar
  Ching-tê (-chen), city
  ching-t'ien system
  Ching Tsung, Manchu ruler
  Ch'iu Ying, painter
  Chou, dynasty;
    short Chou dynasty;
    Later Chou dynasty;
    Northern Chou dynasty
  Chou En-lai, politician
  Chou-k'ou-tien, archaeological site
  Chou-kung (Duke of Chou)
  Chou-li, book
  Chou Tun-i, philosopher
  Christianity (see Nestorians, Jesuits, Missionaries)
  Chronology
  Ch'u, state
  Chu Ch'üan-chung, general and ruler
  Chu Hsi, philosopher
  Chu-ko Liang, general
  Chu Tê, general
  Chu Tsai-yü, scholar
  Chu Yüan-chang (T'ai Tsu), ruler
  chuang (see Manors, Estates)
  Chuang Tz[)u], philosopher
  Chün-ch'en, ruler
  Ch'un-ch'iu, book
  chün-t'ien system (land equalization system)
  chün-tz[)u] (gentleman)
  Chung-ch'ang T'ung, philosopher
  Chungking (Ch'ung-ch'ing), city
  Church, Buddhistic
    Taoistic
    (see Chang Ling)
  Cities
    spread and growth of cities
    origin of cities
    twin cities
    (see City states, Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, Hankow, etc.)
  City States (of Central Asia)
  Clans
  Classes, social classes
    (see Castes, ch'ien-min, liang-min, Gentry, etc.)
  Climate, changes
  Cliques
  Cloisonné
  Cobalt
  Coins (see Money)
  Colonialism (see Imperialism)
  Colonization (see Migration, Assimilation)
  Colour prints
  Communes
  Communism (see Marxism, Socialism, Soviets)
  Concubines
  Confessions
  Confucian ritual
    Confucianism
    Confucian literature
    false Confucian literature
    Confucians
    (see Neo-Confucianism)
  Conquests (see War, Colonialism)
  Conservatism
  Constitution
  Contending States
  Co-operatives
  Copper (see Bronze, Metal)
  Corruption
  Corvée (forced labour) (see Labour)
  Cotton
  Courtesans (see Brothel)
  Coxinga, rebel
  Craftsmen (see Artisans)
  Credits
  Criminals
  Crop rotation

  Dalai Lama, religious ruler of Tibet
  Dance
  Deflation
  Deities (see T'ien, Shang Ti, Maitreya, Amithabha, etc.)
  Delft, city
  Demands, the twenty-one
  Democracy
  Denshiring
  Despotism (see Absolutism)
  Dewey, J., educator
  Dialects (see Language)
  Dialecticians
  Dictators (see Despotism)
  Dictionaries
  Diploma, for monks
  Diplomacy
  Disarmament
  Discriminatory laws (see Double Standard)
  Dog
  Dorgon, prince
  Double standard, legal
  Drama
  Dress, changes
  Dungan, tribes
  Dynastic histories (see History)
  Dzungars, people

  Eclipses
  Economy
    Money economy
    Natural economy
    (see Agriculture, Nomadism, Industry, Denshiring, Money, Trade, etc.)
  Education (see Schools, Universities, Academies, Script,
    Examination system, etc.)
  Elements, the five
  Elephants
  Élite (see Intellectuals, Students, Gentry)
  Elixir (see Alchemy)
  Emperor, position of
    Emperor and church
    (see Despotism, King, Absolutism, Monarchy, etc.)
  Empress (see Lü, Wu, Wei, Tz[)u] Hsi)
  Encyclopaedias
  England (see Great Britain)
  Ephtalites, tribe
  Epics
  Equalization Office (see chün-t'ien)
  Erotic literature
  Estates (chuang)
  Ethics (see Confucianism)
  Eunuchs
  Europe
    Europeans
  Examination system
    Examinations for Buddhists

  Fables
  Factories
  Fallow system
  Falsifications (see Confucianism)
  Family structure
    Family ethics
    Family planning
  Fan Chung-yen, politician
  Fascism
  Federations, tribal
  Felt
  Fêng Kuo-chang, politician
  Fêng Meng-lung,