Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (small books to read TXT) 📖

the “Aeneid.” 31. He asked help of men whom he knew could not help him.

TO THE TEACHER.—These schemes and questions under the head of General Review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar.

The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for outlines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole lesson.

Scheme for the Noun.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

NOUN. Uses. Subject (4, 8). Object Complement (28). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Adjective Modifier (33). Adverb Modifier (35). Principal word in Prep. Phrase (17). Independent (44). Classes. Common (85). (Abstract and Collective.) Proper (85). Modifications. Number. Singular (112-116). Plural (112-116). Gender. Masculine (117, 118). Feminine (117, 118). Neuter (117, 118). Person. First (119). Second (119). Third (119). Case. Nominative (119). Possessive (119, 122, 123). Objective (119).

Questions on the Noun.

1. Define the noun and its classes.—Lesson 85.

2. Name and define the modifications of the noun.—Lessons 112, 117, 119.

3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and cases.—Lessons 112, 117, 119.

4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural.—Lessons

112, 113, 114.

 

5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the genders.—Lesson 117.

6. How is the possessive case formed?—Lesson 122.

7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the possessive forms.—Lesson 128.

+Scheme for the Pronoun.+

PRONOUN. +Uses+.—Same as those of the Noun. +Classes+. Personal (85, 86, 87). Relative (85, 86, 87). Interrogative (85). Adjective (85, 87). +Modifications+.—Same as those of the Noun (112, 117, 118, 119, 124,

125, 142).

 

Questions on the Pronoun.

1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists.—Lesson 85.

2. Decline the several pronouns.—Lesson 124.

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the different pronouns.—Lessons 86, 87.

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the number forms, the gender forms, and the case forms.—Lessons 118, 125, 142.

 

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LESSON 127.

COMPARISON.

+Introductory Hints.+—_That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, but this one is the sweetest._ The adjective sweet, expressing a quality of the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding er and est.

Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by form, or inflection. This modification is called +Comparison+, because it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common to them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple quality, as sweet, is of the +Positive Degree+; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree, as sweeter, less sweet, is of the +Comparative Degree+; and that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as sweetest, least sweet, is of the +Superlative Degree+.

But even the positive implies a comparison; we should not say, This apple is sweet, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordinary apples possess.

Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This apple is sweeter than that, or, This apple is the sweetest of the three, we do not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared.

The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We can say very, exceedingly, rather, or somewhat sweet; far, still, or much, sweeter; by far or much the sweetest.

Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared.

Adjectives have one modification; viz., +Comparison+. [Footnote: Two adjectives, this and that, have number forms—this, these; that, those. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender, number, and case.]

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared.+ [Footnote: Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison.]

+The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality.+

+The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality.

+The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+.

+RULE.—Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative+.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

+RULE I.—Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, fine, finer; love, loving.

+Exceptions.+—The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o; as, peaceable, changeable; (2) after o; as, hoeing; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; as, singeing, dyeing.

+RULE II.–Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix net beginning with i; as,+ witty, wittier; dry, dried.

Exceptions.–Y does not change before ‘s, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns; as, lady’s, the Marys, the Henrys.

+RULE III.—In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, hot, hotter; begin, beginning.

Exceptions.—_X, k,_ and v are never doubled, and gas has gases in the plural.

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most. This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one.

+Remark+.—_More beautiful, most beautiful_, etc. can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections er and est are added.

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and least[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxon superlative ending +st+ is in most and least; and the Saxon comparative ending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in less—changed to +r+, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the r in more.

When it was forgotten that less is a comparative, er was added, and we have the double comparative lesser—in use to-day.

After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, double comparatives and double superlatives were common; as, worser, most boldest. In “King Lear” Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times.]; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees.

Direction.—_From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, and compare those that remain:—_

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above.

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior.

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred.

+Direction+.—_Correct the following_:—

Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest.

Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding er and est, and some by prefixing more and most.

+Direction+.—_Compare the following_:—

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely.

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison.

+Direction+.—_Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs_:—

Adjectives Irregularly Compared.

Pos. Comp. Superlative. (Aft),* after, aftmost or aftermost. Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst. Ill | Far, farther, fartherest or fathermost Fore, former, foremost or first. (Forth), further, furtherest or furthermost. Good, better, best. Hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost. (In), inner, inmost or innermost. Late, later or latest or latter last. Little,+ less or least. lesser, Many or more, most. Much, Near, nearer nearest or next. Old, older or oldest or elder, eldest. (Out), outer or outmost or utter, outermost; utmost or uttermost. Under, –-, undermost. (Up), upper, upmost or uppermost. Top, –-, topmost.

[Footnote *: The words inclosed in curves are adverbs—the adjectives following having no positive form.]

[Footnote +: For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, smaller and smallest are substituted; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy.]

Adverbs Irregularly Compared.

Pos. Comp. Superlative.

Badly,| worse, worst. Ill, | Far, farther, farthest, Forth, further, furthest. Little, less, least, Much, more, most. Well, better, best.

TO THE TEACHER.—We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs.

Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Lessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65.

Model for Written Parsing.—_All the dewy glades are still_.

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATION. |SYNTAX ––––––-|–––––|–––––––––––- Adjectives.| Kind. | Deg. of Comp. | All | Def. | –– | Modifier of glades. the | ” | –– | ” ” ” dewy | Des. | Pos. | ” ” ” still | ” | ” | Completes are and modifies glades.

 

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LESSON 128.

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

+Caution+.—In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself. [Footnote: A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different conditions; as, The star is brighter to-night; The grass is greener to-day.]

+Remark+.—The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally followed by than. [Footnote: The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together as, He is no better than other men; It contains more than all the others combined.]

+Direction+.—_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:_—

1. London is larger than any city in Europe.

+Correction+.—The second term of comparison, any city in Europe, includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be, London is larger than any other city in Europe, or, London is the largest city in Europe.

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no metal so useful as iron.

(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.)

5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion.

+Caution+.—In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter term of the comparison, or the term introduced by of, include the former.

+Remarks+.—The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by of.

Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things; as, This is the best