Pedagogical Anthropology by Maria Montessori (new books to read .TXT) 📖

and also because it was compiled by an educator (see page (420)).

Nevertheless, the inquiry into his antecedents is only a preparation for the scientific study of the pupil in his present state; a study which should follow the pupil through his daily life (diaries) and thus constitute his complete Biographical History.

Having collected the antecedent details, we pass on to the objective anthropological and psychic examination of the pupil: beginning with the anthropological, which it is more important to secure first; since the psychic examination will produce better results after a prolonged observation of the subject (diaries, school records).

In the anthropological examination it is customary to begin by taking the principal measurements (total stature, sitting stature, weight, thoracic perimeter, perimeter of the head, and its two maximum diameters) which furnish the data needed to give a fundamental idea of the child's physiological constitution and racial type, and to determine the normality of his growth. Many other measurements may be taken (spirometry, dynamometry), according to the custom of the school, and, in private schools, according to the object which the Principal has in view, in the way of contributions to science. For instance, in a school for defectives the examinations as to general sensibility, speech, muscular strength have an importance of the first order, and equally important is the accurate and minute inspection of the different organs, for the purpose of discovering possible malformations. There are various special objects to be attained by gathering anthropological data, and accordingly every school based upon modern scientific principles has its own "Biographical Chart" drawn up according to special forms containing the necessary measurements and observations, and the examiner has only to follow the directions of this guide and to fill in the required information obtained from the individual pupil.

INQUIRY INTO ANTECEDENTS IN PASTORELLO'S BIOGRAPHIC CHART

General Information Regarding Pupil's Family Name And Surname of Parents Employment Father Father Mother Mother What degree of relationship, if any, exists between the parents? Ancestry
Father At what age did the parents contract marriage?.................


How old were the parents at the time of the child's birth?..... Mother



State of Health Moral and Financial Condition of the Pupil's Family Father
Mother
From what diseases have the relatives of the pupil died? Is the family interested in the education of the children?

Have there been any predominant diseases in the family?


Education Family Habits, Eccentricities and Vices Father
Mother

Here, for instance, is the anthropological form used in the great orphan asylum in New York:

NEW YORK JUVENILE ASYLUM
Anthropological Examination and Measurements.—No. of page Date of entrance Minimum frontal diameter Sex Height of head Age Inspection: cranium Date of birth Face Name Eyes Total stature Ears Sitting stature Gums Total spread of arms Teeth Weight Palate Prehensile strength, right hand Uvula Prehensile strength, left hand Strabismus Power of traction Limbs Thorax Antero-posterior diameter Body Transverse diameter Genitals Maximum circumference of head Lung Maximum antero-posterior diameter Heart Maximum transverse diameter Special notes

This form has signs of modernity: in fact, it concedes the greater part of the research that is to be made in the first objective examination to anthropological observations, limiting the observations of a physiological nature to those of muscular strength—it being well known that all functions in general, and especially the psychic functions, cannot be determined with reliable accuracy except after repeated and prolonged observations. Furthermore, the modern tendency in anthropologic research is revealed by the preference given to measurements of the body in its entirety, giving first place to those of the bust and limbs, from which the important ratio of their development is obtained (standing and sitting stature, total spread of the arms), and the weight. Furthermore, there is a notable absence of measurements of the face, measurements which it is the modern tendency to abandon where the subjects of research are children, since in this case they have no physiological or ethnical importance, because the face of the child varies from year to year, and has no fixed index like that of the cranium. A study of the facial measurements might be of importance as contributing to a knowledge of the evolution of the face through successive years; but such knowledge can be obtained, so far as is needed, from "special studies and researches," without making obligatory a form of research that is both troublesome and dangerous (the application of pointed instruments to the faces of children). The best method of examining the face is by photographing the full face and the profile at intervals of one year. Accordingly, the biographic form used in the "Children's Houses" contains only questions of an anthropologic nature of importance in relation to growth (see the form of the Biographic Chart of the "Children's Houses," page (423)).

The greatest importance attaches to the stature and weight. Indeed, while all the required measurements are taken once a year on the occasion of the child's birthday, the total stature and the weight are taken once a month upon the day of that month corresponding to the child's birthday. The numerous other physio-pathological and psychic notes, the examination in regard to speech, etc., are obtained partly from the diaries and partly from the physician, according to the necessities of individual cases.

The photograph should complete the examination of the pupil. The methods of observation adopted in the "Children's Houses" represent, I think, the ideal method for the accurate recording of individual characteristics. Since the pedagogical methods there employed are themselves founded upon the "spontaneity" of the manifestations of children, it may be said that they represent the technical and rational means of proceeding to a psychic examination of the child.

I cannot linger upon this point, because the question deserves a special investigation; but it must suffice to point out that in order to render biographic charts a necessary adjunct to the management of schools, so as to offer a real aid to the teacher and not to have them mean to her (as happens to-day only too frequently!), "just so much more work," the immediate utility of which is doubtful, it is essential that the pedagogic methods of instruction should be changed.

So long as a child is required to perform certain definite acts, he will reveal nothing of himself beyond responding, in so far as he is capable, to the requirements of his environment; and any attempt to make psychological deductions from such response would contain profound errors.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL FORM

Used in the "Children's Houses," in Rome and Milan

No. Date of Enrollment Name and Surname Age Name of Parents Age: M F Vocation Hereditary Antecedents


Personal Antecedents


Anthropological Notes Total stature Weight Thoracic circumf. Essential stature Index of stature Ponderal index Cranium Cir Circumf. a.-p. diam. Transv. diam. Cephalic index

Physical constitution Muscular development Color of complexion Color of hair Notes

Nevertheless, the earlier forms of biographic charts, and even the modern ones in general use in Italy (!) frequently contain minute requirements for psychic examination in relation to such points as memory, attention, perception and intelligence.

And even less satisfactory are the requirements in the charts regarding the examination for sensibility—namely, ability to distinguish colours, sense of touch, smell, etc.; because the pedagogic methods in vogue in school (and this applies to-day to all our schools) make no provision for a rational exercise of the senses, nor for instruction in the nomenclature relating to them. An examination of the senses for the purposes of the biographic chart should at most be limited to a test of their acuteness, forming an inquiry analogous to that of sensibility to pain. For an inquiry into the power to discriminate between various sensations ceases to be a simple examination of the senses, and becomes a combined test of psychic powers and of the degree of culture attained (the degree to which the senses have been trained). Furthermore, it is well known that a psychical examination demands preparation on the part of the person to be examined, complete repose from all emotion, isolation of the senses, etc., the preparation depending upon the special research which it is desired to make; all of which is absolutely opposed to the aggressiveness of the tumultuous examination conducted by an investigator whose chief aim is to fill in the blanks upon the biographic charts. The psychic examination of a pupil is a task to be accomplished slowly, by watching the child's behaviour, in the course of its daily life under the eye of an intelligent and trained observer.

Nevertheless, it is sometimes necessary, especially in schools for defective children, to form at once a comprehensive first impression of the psychic condition of a given child; it furnishes the observer with a needed point of departure, and abridges the long and difficult task of a psychological study of the pupil, to be made in the course of the ensuing year. In such a case, the biographical form should not contain such general topics as the following:

Memory, Sense of place and time, Judgment, Moral sense, etc.,

but a series of very simple questions to be put by the examiner to the pupil, the replies to which must be recorded accurately, without alteration in any manner, but reproducing their incorrectness of speech, their hesitations, etc. In this way such a form of inquiry constitutes not only a first psychical examination, but also a first examination as to defects of speech, which is of much value and reproduces quite exactly the state of the subject at a given moment.

On the contrary, the sort of results obtained according to the older method, e.g.:

Memory, poor; Intelligence, sufficient; Attention, easily aroused, etc.;

were practically worthless, especially in absence of any knowledge of the competence of the person who formulated these judgments.

Here is an example of a series of questions to be used as a psychic test, prepared by Professor Sante de Sanctis, and included in the Biographic charts of the Asylum-School for Defective Children at Rome:

What is your name? How old are you? What is your mamma's name? Have you any brothers? Have you any sisters? What is your father's business? Is your father (or mother) old or young? At what age is one old? How do you know that a man is old? What is this? (a couch in the corridor). What is it for? What is this? (a table). What is it for? Do you always feel well? Are you hungry? When are you hungry? Do you ever dream at night? What do you dream? What time is it now, more or less? What year is it? What month is it? What season of the year? What day of the month is it? What day of the week? Where do you live? Where are you at the present moment? What are these? (two books or two pictures) and which of the two is the larger? Which of these three glasses has the most water in it? Which will weigh the most and which the least of the three? How many persons are there in your home? Is your home large or small? How many rooms are there? Whom do you love most? What would you do if (the person named) were hungry? What would you do if he were very sick? Or if he died? Do you love some playmate, or some friend? Why do you love him? Do you hate anyone? Why? Do you know the meaning of right and wrong? Do you know the meaning of rewards and punishments?

Out of all the existing forms of biographic charts I have selected four in their entirety; two are historical: 1. the first form for the individual examination of the pupil ever published in any treatise on pedagogy; and 2. the first form printed in Italy by the city authorities with the intention of having it introduced into the elementary schools.

The first of these is the biographic chart proposed by Séguin in his pedagogic treatise relating to the education of idiots (Traitement moral, hygiene,