Data Mining Mehmed Kantardzic (good english books to read .txt) 📖

The first step of the SOM learning is the initialization of the neurons’ weights where two methods are widely used. Initial weights can be taken as the coordinates of randomly selected m points from the data set (usually normalized between 0 and 1), or small random values can be sampled evenly from the input data subspace spanned by the two largest principal component eigenvectors. The second method can increase the speed of training but may lead to a local minima and miss some nonlinear structures in the data.

The learning process is performed after initialization where training data set is submitted to the SOM one by one, sequentially, and usually in several iterations. Each output with its connections, often called a cell, is a node containing a template against which input samples are matched. All output nodes are compared with the same input sample in parallel, and SOM computes the distances between each cell and the input. All cells compete, so that only the cell with the closest match between the input and its template produces an active output. Each node therefore acts like a separate decoder or pattern detector for the same input sample, and the winning node is commonly known as the Best Matching Unit (BMU).

When the winning node is determined for a given input sample, the learning phase adapts the weight vectors in the SOM. Adaptation of the weight vectors for each output occurs through a process similar to competitive learning except that subsets of nodes are adapted at each learning step in order to produce topologically ordered maps. The “winning” node BMU aligns its own weight vector with the training input and hence becomes sensitive to it and will provide maximum response if it is shown to the network again after training. Nodes in the neighborhood set of the “winning” node must also be modified in a similar way to create regions of nodes that will respond to related samples. Nodes outside the neighborhood set remain unchanged. Figure 7.16a gives an example of 2-D matrix outputs for SOM. For the given BMU the neighborhood is defined as a 3 × 3 matrix of nodes surrounding BMU.

Figure 7.16. Characteristics of SOM learning process. (a) SOM: BMU and neighborhood; (b) the radius of the neighborhood diminishes with each sample and iteration; (c) BEFORE learning, rectangular grid of SOM; (d) AFTER learning, rectangular grid of SOM.

Every node within the BMU’s neighborhood (including the BMU) has its weight vector adjusted according to the following equation in the iterative training process:

where hi(t) is a so-called neighborhood function. It is defined as a function of time t or more precisely a training iteration, and it specifies the neighborhood area of the ith neuron. It has been found experimentally that in order to achieve global ordering of the map the neighborhood set around the winning node should initially be large to quickly produce a rough mapping. With the increased number of iterations through the training set data, the neighborhood should be reduced to force a more localized adaptation of the network. This is done so the input samples can first move to an area of SOM where they will probably be, and then they will more precisely determine the position. This process is similar to coarse adjustment followed by fine-tuning (Fig. 7.17). The radius of the neighborhood of the BMU is therefore dynamic. To do this SOM can use, for example, the exponential decay function that reduces the radius dynamically with each new iteration. The graphical interpretation of the function is given in Figure 7.16b.

Figure 7.17. Coarse adjustment followed by fine-tuning through the neighborhood. (a) Hexagonal grid; (b) rectangular grid; (c) neighborhood in a hexagonal grid; (d) neighborhood in a rectangular grid.

The simplest neighborhood function, which refers to a neighborhood set of nodes around the BMU node i, is a monotonically decreasing Gaussian function:

where α(t) is a learning rate (0 < α(t) < 1), and the width of the kernel σ(t) is a monotonically decreasing function of time as well, and t is the current time step (iteration of the loop). While the process will adapt all weight vectors within the current neighborhood region, including those of the winning neuron, those outside this neighborhood are left unchanged. The initial radius is set high, some values near the width or height of the map. As a result, at the early stage of training when the neighborhood is broad and covers almost all the neurons, the self-organization takes place at the global scale. As the iterations continue, the base goes toward the center, so there are fewer neighbors as time progresses. At the end of training, the neighborhood shrinks to 0 and only BMU neuron updates its weights. The network will generalize through the process to organize similar vectors (which it has not previously seen) spatially close at the SOM outputs.

Apart from reducing the neighborhood, it has also been found that quicker convergence of the SOM algorithm is obtained if the adaptation rate of nodes in the network is reduced over time. Initially the adaptation rate should be high to produce coarse clustering of nodes. Once this coarse representation has been produced, however, the adaptation rate is reduced so that smaller changes to the weight vectors are made at each node and regions of the map become fine-tuned to the input-training vectors. Therefore, every node within the BMU’s neighborhood including the BMU has its weight vector adjusted through the learning process. The previous equation for weight factors correction hi(t) may include an exponential decrease of “winner’s influence” introducing α(t) also as a monotonically decreasing function.

The number of output neurons in an SOM (i.e., map size) is important to detect the deviation of the data. If the map size is too small, it might not explain some important differences that should be detected between input samples. Conversely, if the map size is too big, the differences are too small. In