Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory by Hugo Münsterberg (good novels to read in english TXT) 📖

from those of the final interval, for the reason that the

mean variation of the latter is greater in three cases out of five

than that of the former, a relation which apparently contradicts what

has already been said concerning the sensitiveness to variations which

marks the intervals separating rhythmical groups. The reason for this

final increase in variation appears when the relative intensities of

the series of reactions are considered. They are given in Table LXXX.

 

TABLE LXXX.

 

No. of Beats. Acc. Beat. Av. Unacc. Final. Pre-final.

Five, 1.000 0.543 0.518 0.500

Six, 1.000 0.623 0.608 0.592

Seven, 1.000 0.515 0.544 0.437

Eight, 1.000 0.929 0.949 0.863

Ten, 1.000 0.621 0.640 0.545

 

In every case the final element is marked by an increase over that

which precedes it (see last two columns of table) of the average value

for all rhythms of 1.000:0.900; an increase which raises it above the

average value of the whole series of preceding unaccented beats in

three cases out of five. To this final accentuation the increase in

variation is to be attributed. Yet despite the additional element of

disturbance due to this increased final stress the average value of

the mean variation for this final interval is lower than that of the

median unaccented intervals in the ratio (all rhythms combined) of

0.992:1.000.

 

Turning, then, to Table LXXIX., there is presented, firstly, an excess

of variation in the accented element over that of the average

unaccented elements in every case but one (the six-beat rhythm in

which the values are nearly identical), which for the whole series of

rhythms has a value of 1.000:0.794. Secondly, in every completed case

(part of the figures in the last rhythm are inadvertently lacking),

the average mean variation of the single interval preponderates over

that of the total group.

 

The second form of rhythmical tapping, in which the longer series were

beaten out as pairs of equal subgroups, was added in order to

determine the quantitative relations of the mean variations for

alternate subgroups when such groups were purposely intended, instead

of appearing in the form of unconscious modifications of the

rhythmical treatment, as heretofore. At the same time the results

present an additional set of figures embodying the relations here in

question. They are as follows:

 

TABLE LXXXI.

Intervals. Groups.

Number Av. 1st 2d 1st 2d

of Beats. Acc. Unacc. Half. Half. Half. Half. Average Totals

Six, 27.9% 20.9% 23.4% 23.0% 14.6% 13.3% 13.9% 13.8%

Eight, 16.6 14.8 13.2 17.3 6.2 3.3 4.7 2.7

Ten, 7.9 2.6 3.4 4.0 5.9 5.2 5.5 3.1

 

No exception here occurs to the characteristic predominance in

instability of the accented element. As regards simple intervals, the

relation of first and second groups is reversed, the reason for which

I do not know. It may be connected with the rapid speed at which the

series of reactions was made, and its consequent raising of the

threshold of perceptible variation, proportional to the value of the

whole interval, to which is also due the higher absolute value of the

variations which appear in both tables.

 

These inversions disappear when we compare the relative stability of

the first and second subgroups, in which the excess of variation in

the former over the latter is not only constant but great, presenting

the ratio for all three rhythms of 1.000:0.816. The characteristic

relation of lower to higher rhythmical syntheses also is here

preserved in regard to the two subgroups and the total which they

compose.

 

The points here determined are but a few of the problems regarding the

structure of larger rhythmical sequences which are pressing for

examination. Of those proximate to the matter here under

consideration, the material for an analysis of the mean variation in

intensity of a series of rhythmical reactions is contained in the

measurements taken in the course of the present work, and this may at

a future time be presented. The temporal variations having once been

established it becomes a minor point.

 

Such conclusions, however, are only preliminary to an investigation of

the characteristic structure of the ordinary metrical forms, and to

these attention should next be turned. The configuration of the common

meters should be worked out both in relation to the whole formal

sequence, and to the occurrence within the series of characteristic

variations. There can be no question that each metrical structure, the

iambic trimeter or dactylic tetrameter line, for example, composes a

definite rhythmical melody within which each measure is shortened or

prolonged, subdued or emphasized, according to its position and

connections in the series of relations which constitute the rhythmical

sequence.

 

These several metrical forms should be explored and the characters of

each measure in the series quantitatively determined. Such an

investigation would include an ascertainment of the proportional

time-value of each successive measure, its average force, and its

sensitiveness to variations, temporal and intensive. It should include

an examination of the configuration of the single measure and the

changes in distribution of accents and intervals which it undergoes as

the rhythmical series advances. For the rhythm group must not be

conceived as a simple unchanging form; both intensively and temporally

it is moulded by its function in the whole sequence, the earlier

iambic of a heroic measure being unlike the later, the dactyl which

precedes a measure of finality different from that which introduces

the series. Such a set of determinations will give the pure

characteristic curves of our common poetical meters.

 

But these meters are no more simple forms than are their constituent

measures. At every point their structure is subject to modification by

factors which appear in the rhythmic utterance in virtue of its use as

a medium for the free expression of thought and emotion; and the

manner in which the characteristic form is altered by these factors of

variation must be studied. Of these variations the more important are

the effects of the introduction of variants—of spondees among

dactyls, of anapæsts among iambics, and the like—and the occurrence

of points of origin, emphasis, interruption, and finality in special

accentuations, syncopated measures, cæsural pauses and elisions. These

factors influence the structure both of those measures within which

they appear and of those adjacent to them. The nature and extent of

this wave of disturbance and its relation to the configuration of the

whole sequence call for examination.

 

Finally, this process of investigation should be applied to the larger

structures of the couplet and stanza, that the characteristic

differences in the pair or series of verses involved may be

determined. These characters include the whole time occupied by each

verse of the stanza, the relative values of acatalectic and catalectic

verses occurring within the same stanza structure, differences in

rhythmical melody between the latter forms, the variations of average

intensity in the accentual elements of such lines, and a determination

of the values of rests of higher and lower degrees—mid-line, verse,

and couplet pauses—which appear in the various stanza forms, and

their relation to other structural elements.

 

*

 

RHYTHM AND RHYME.

 

BY R.H. STETSON.

 

I. INTRODUCTION.

 

The psychological theory of rhythm has its beginnings in the work of

Herbart,[1] who inaugurated the treatment of rhythm as a species of

time perception and suggested an explanation of its emotional effects.

While Herbart had simply pointed out the effect of a whole rhythmic

series in giving rise to an emotion of expectation, delay, or haste,

Lotze[2] applied the principle severally to each unit group (each

foot) in the rhythm, and made the emotional effect of rhythm depend on

these alternate feelings of strain, expectation, and satisfaction

produced by every repetition of the unit group. Vierordt[3] did the

first experimental work on rhythm, determining the period of greatest

regularity in the tapping of rhythms. But the first important

experiments were carried on by von Brücke.[4] By tapping out rhythms

on a kymograph, he determined the well-known ‘Taktgleichheit’ of the

feet in scanned verse, and noted a number of facts about the time

relations of the different unit groups. Mach[5] added to the previous

knowledge about rhythm certain observations on the subjective

accentuation of an objectively uniform series, and specially he noted

that the process is involuntary. With a much clearer understanding of

the facts of rhythm than his predecessors had had, he really provided

the foundation for the theories which follow. His most important

contribution, for some time overlooked, was his emphasis of the

essentially motor nature of the phenomena of rhythm, and his motor

theory therefor.

 

[1] Herbart, J.F.: ‘Psychol. Untersuchungen’ (Sämmt. Werk,

herausgeg. von Hartenstein), Leipzig, 1850-2, Bd. VII., S. 291

ff.

 

[2] Lotze, R.H.: ‘Geschichte der Æsthetik,’ München, 1863, S.

487 ff.

 

[3] Vierordt, K.: ‘Untersuchungen über d. Zeitsinn,’ Tübingen,

1868.

[4] von Brücke, E.W.: ‘Die physiol. Grundlagen d.

neuhochdeutschen Verskunst,’ Wien, 1871.

 

[5] Mach, Ernst: ‘Unters. ü. d. Zeitsinn d. Ohres,’ _Wiener

Sitz. Ber., mathem. naturw. Classe_, 1865, Bd. 51, II., S. 133.

Beiträge zur Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, S. 104 ff.

 

Many of the recent theories of rhythm are based on Wundt’s analysis.

The work of Wundt and Dietze,[6] was concerned with rhythmic series;

but it may be noted that the ‘span of consciousness’ and the

‘synthetic activity of consciousness’ were the subjects actually under

investigation. Rhythm was considered as a special temporal form of

this ‘psychic synthesis.’ There are three different elements in a

sound series, declared these writers, which contribute to this

synthesis: qualitative changes, intensive changes and melodic changes.

Of these the intensive changes are the most important. Every increase

in intensity, that is, every beat (‘Hebung’) is followed by a

decrease, and the next increase which follows is recognized as a

repetition of the preceding beat and as the forerunner of the beat

which is to follow. From this comes the synthetic power of the rhythm.

Just as the simple unit groups are built up by this synthesizing

power, so they in turn are combined into larger phrases and periods.

The motor factor has little place in Wundt’s own discussion,[7] the

‘mental activity’ is the all-important thing. Bolton[8] also made a

very important contribution to the experimental knowledge of rhythm.

His work was based entirely on Wundt’s theory. His method of

experimentation was accurate and his observations copious. The

arrangement of his apparatus, however, led him to emphasize objective

uniformity as a condition of rhythmic grouping; so that Meumann’s

criticism of his application of this principle to poetry is quite

just. Nevertheless Bolton established the essential facts of

subjective accentuation and apparent temporal displacement. It is

noteworthy that he laid great emphasis on the motor aspect of rhythm,

and made many careful observations on the ‘motor accompaniment.’ While

inclining strongly to a motor interpretation he did not attempt to cut

loose from the Wundtian ‘apperceptive process’ as the primary factor.

 

[6] Wundt, W.: ‘Physiol. Psych.,’ 4te Aufl., Leipzig, 1893, Bd.

II., S. 83.

 

[7] Wundt, W.: ‘Physiol. Psych.,’ 4te Aufl., Leipzig, 1893,

II., S. 89 ff.

 

[8] Bolton, T.L.: Amer. Jour. of Psych., 1894, VI., p. 145 et

seq.

 

The most elaborate consideration of rhythm yet published is that of

Meumann.[9] He avowedly worked out and defended the theory of Wundt.

The only important difference is the larger place which he gave to the

‘motor accompaniment,’ although he was always careful to emphasize its

secondary and derived character. He insisted that the ‘mental

activity’ is always primary, and that without it there can be no

rhythmization; and he opposed vigorously the motor inclinations of

Mach and Bolton. It is certainly unfortunate that rhythm has always

fallen into the hands of the investigators of the ‘attention,’ or the

‘span of consciousness,’ or the ‘perception of time.’ It is but an

incident that judgments of time are often based on rhythms; and

everything that Meumann has said of a ‘mental prius,’ or