Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory by Hugo Münsterberg (good novels to read in english TXT) 📖

in 74 per cent, of cases

opposed to D.; in 30 per cent, of cases, D. of glance opposed

to D. of body; least used, V. (1 per cent.).

 

IV. One case only.

 

V. (D. = .) Most used element, Ms., in 73 per cent. of cases

opposed to D.; in 40 per cent. of cases, D. of glance opposed

to D.; in 28 per cent. Ms. + D. of glance opposed to D.; least

used element, V. (15 per cent.). I. 39 per cent.; L. 38 per cent.

 

B.

I. (Balanced, Ms. + I. = D.) Most used element (not counting

those already included in equation), I., 55 per cent.; least

used, V., 2 per cent.; L., 50 per cent. In 44 per cent., D. of

glance opposed to D.

 

II. (Ms. + I. = D.) Most used element (not in equation), I., 52

per cent. Least used, V., 26 per cent. L., 43 per cent. In 21

per cent., D. of glance opposed to D.

 

III. (Ms. + I. + D. = D.) Three cases. Two cases V. on empty

side.

 

IV. (Ms. + I. = .) Two cases. One case V. on empty side.

 

V. (Ms. + I. + D. = .) Most used element, L., 60 per cent.;

least used, V., 10 per cent.; 33-1/3 per cent., D. of glance to

empty side.

 

The portrait class is an especially interesting object for study,

inasmuch as while its general type is very simple and constant, for

this very reason the slightest variations are sharply felt, and have

their very strongest characteristic effect. We shall, therefore, find

that the five principal factors in composition express themselves very

clearly. The general type of the portrait composition is, of course,

the triangle with the head at the apex, and this point is also

generally in the central line—in 73 per cent. of the whole number of

cases, as is seen from the table. All cases but one are longer than

they are wide, most are half-length or more. Nevertheless, great

richness of effect is brought about by emphasizing variations. For

instance, the body and head are, in the great majority of cases,

turned in the same way, giving the strongest possible emphasis to the

direction of attention—especially powerful, of course, where all the

interest is in the personality. But it is to be observed that the very

strongest suggestion of direction is given by the direction of the

glance; and in no case, when most of the other elements are directed

in one way, does the glance fail to come backward. (Cf. A. II., V.,

and B. I., II., V.)

 

A. It is of especial value for our conclusions that that division in

which the constant elements are least balanced (V.) is far the most

numerous. Comparison of this with III. shows that the principal

element, direction of movement of head or body, is balanced by the

larger mass of the body or accessories. Very significant, also, is the

great increase in the use of V. in this most irregular class (15 per

cent. as against 1 per cent. in III.). Three cases (214, 1087, 154,

all A.V.,) fail to show substitutional symmetry.

 

B. With the head on one side of Cn., of course the greatest interest

is removed to one side, and the element of direction is brought in to

balance. Again, with this decrease in symmetry, we see the significant

increase in the use of the especially effective elements, V. and L.

(Cf. B. I., II., III., IV., and especially V.) In fact, the use of the

small deep vista is almost confined to the class with heads not in the

middle. The direction of the glance also plays an important part. It

is to be noted that in B. I. and II., I. appears as the most

frequently used element, exclusive of the general equation, which is,

of course, between the mass of the body and interest of the face, on

one side, and the direction of suggested movement on the other. This

means that very often the direction of movement alone is not

sufficient to balance the powerful Ms. + I. of the other side, and

that the eye has to be attracted by a definite object of interest.

This is usually the hand, with or without an implement—like the

palette, etc., of our first examples—or a jewel, vase, or bit of

embroidery. This is very characteristic of the portraits of Rembrandt

and Van Dyck.

 

In general, it may be said that (1) portraits with the head in the

center of the frame show a balance between the direction of suggested

movement on one side, and mass or direction of attention, or both

together, on the other; while (2) portraits with the head not in the

center show a balance between mass and interest on one side, and

direction of attention, or of line, or vista, or combinations of

these, on the other. The hypothesis of substitutional symmetry is thus

completely confirmed.

 

Genre.

 

Still more unsymmetrical in their framework than portraits, in fact

the most unfettered type of all, are the genre pictures. Being so

irregular, they admit of no complete classification based on constant

elements in the framework, such as was possible for the types already

dealt with. A grouping, based on types of composition, is indeed

possible, as of triangles, diagonals, etc., but as this begs the

question of the relative importance of line and direction of

attention, and assumes that the shape is all-important, it will not be

made use of here. The broad divisions and the relative use of the

elements are given as follows:

 

S.C. 63. Most frequent form (I. = or I. + D. =). Most used

element, I., 89 per cent.; least used, L., 44 per cent.; D.,

57 per cent.; Ms., 57 per cent.; V., 46 per cent.

 

D.C. 19. Most frequent form (I. + D. = I. + D.) Most used

element, I. (all cases); least used, L., 31 per cent.; V., 47

per cent.; Ms., 63 per cent.; D., 42 per cent.

 

S.&S. 11. Most frequent form (I. or I. + Ms. = V. or V. +).

Most used element, I., 100 per cent.; least used, L., 20 per

cent.; V., 82 per cent.; Ms., 72 per cent.; D., 27 per cent.

 

As these are pictures with a human interest, and, therefore full of

action and particular points of interest, it was to be expected that

I. would be in all forms the element most frequently appearing. In

compositions showing great variations from geometrical symmetry, it

was also to be expected that V. and L., elements which have been

little used up to this point, should suddenly appear in very high

percentages; for, as being the most strikingly ‘heavy’ of the

elements, they serve to compensate for other variations combined. In

general, however, the balance is between the interesting side, which

is also often the most occupied (I. + Ms.), and the direction of

suggestion to the other side.

 

For the first time in this investigation the S. & S. and D.C. types

appear in appreciable numbers. It is of some significance that the

most irregular type of all, S. & S., in which the weight of interest

and of mass is overwhelmingly on one side, should be invariably

balanced by the third dimension (V.). As these somewhat infrequent

cases are especially enlightening for the theory of substitutional

symmetry, it is worth while to analyze one in detail.

 

286. Pieter de Hooch, The Card-players, in Buckingham Palace,

portrays a group completely on the Right of Cn., all facing in to the

table between them. Directly behind them is a high light window,

screened, and high on the wall to the extreme Right are a picture and

hanging cloaks. All goes to emphasize the height, mass and interest of

the Right side. On the Left, which is otherwise empty, is a door half

the height of the window, giving on a brightly lighted courtyard, from

which is entering a woman, also in light clothing. The light streams

in diagonally across the floor. Thus, with all the ‘weight’ on the

Right, the effect of this deep vista on the Left and of its brightness

is to give a complete balance, while the suggestion of line from

doorway and light makes, together with the central figure, a roughly

outlined V, which serves to bind together all the elements. This

matter of binding together of elements is reserved for further

discussion—the purpose of this detailed description is only to show

the extraordinary power of a single element, vista, to balance a whole

composition of others, and its significance in the tables as an

increasing accompaniment of increasing variations from symmetry.

 

The D.C. cases, inasmuch as they always present a balance of interest

at least, are less valuable for our theory; among the variations the

larger side, Ms., is often balanced by a vista, or, combining with the

usual equation for genre pictures, Ms. + I. + D. = V. + I. + D. There

is only one picture which cannot be schematized (263).

 

Landscape.

 

The landscape is another type of unfettered composition. As it

represents no action or single object or group of objects, its parts

are naturally more or less unconnected. It should, therefore, be said

that no picture was taken as D.C. unless there was a distinct

separation of the two sides. The typical examples are analyzed in

detail.

 

S.C. 912. J. van Ruysdael, Forest Landscape, in the London National

Gallery. In the Cn. is a stagnant pool, backed on the Right by thick

woods. A dead tree, white, very prominent in the Right foreground,

another at its foot sloping down to Cn. On the Left a bank sloping

down to Cn., a tree at its foot; behind both, and seen also between

the two central trees, bright sky and clouds. Thus, there is on the

Right, Mass and Direction to Cn.; on the Left, Vista and Direction to

Cn.; Ms. + D. = V. + D.

 

D.C. 642. Hobbema, The Watermill, in Buckingham Palace. On the

Right, a bank sloping upward, a large cluster of trees, a path leading

down to Right lower corner. On the Left, somewhat lower, the mill, and

water in front of it, flowing down to Left; clearest sky between mill

and trees. Thus Mass and Direction out are placed over against

Interest (in mill) and Direction out, plus possibly a hint of Vista,

or Ms. + D. = I. + D + V.

 

S.C. 65. Most frequent form, Ms. + I. = V. + L. Most used element, V.,

98 per cent.; least used, D., 22 per cent. I. 73 per cent.; Ms. 66 per

cent.; L. 31 per cent.

 

S. & S. One case. Ms. + I. + V. = V.

 

D.C. 22. Most frequent form, Ms. + I. or Ms. = V. or V. + (almost

invariable). Most used element, V., 100 per cent.; least used, D., per

cent. Ms. 82 per cent.; I. 73 per cent.; L. 23 per cent.

 

It was, of course, to be expected that in pictures without action

there should be little suggestion of attention or of direction of

movement. What is less evident is the reason for the high percentage

of I. Of course, figures do appear in many examples, and in most

pictures some inanimate object is emphasized—as, for instance, the

mill in our second example. But the most remarkable point of

difference in these tables from the preceding is the presence of V. in

practically every example. It is, of course, natural that somewhere in

almost every picture there should be a break to show the horizon line,

for the sake of variety, if for nothing else—but what is significant

is