The Bodhisatta in Theravada Buddhism by Nico Moonen (best books to read now .TXT) 📖

partly of Buddhist origin. Most of them belong to the Indian ascetic literature.

 

    Winternitz concluded that more than half of all the Jātakas, except the commentary, are not of Buddhist origin. His explanation is that the Buddhist monks came from all ranks in society. Many of them (e.g. labourers and merchants) would have been familiar with the popular stories of their time. Other monks would have been acquainted with the ancient ballads and epic poems of the warriors. Yet, others would have often heard the legends and myths of the pious Brahmins. When they became monks these people would probably have found it useful to incorporate much of this into their new religious tradition.[196]

   

    Some scholars argue that the Jātakas give us a picture of the narrative literature and the cultural relations at the time of the Buddha or of former times. But according to Winternitz this counts only in a very limited way.[197] Dr. R. Fick researched the social circumstances in North East India where the Buddha and Buddhism originated. According to him the social circumstances in the Jātakas refer to those at the time of the Buddha.[198] G. Bühler argued (1895) that very few traces of Buddhism can be found in the Jātaka-stories. And they do not describe the situation of India in the third or fourth century B.C.E., but that of an older period.[199]

    According to Rhys Davids the political and social circumstances described in the Jātaka-book relate for the most part the situation that existed in North India before the time of the Buddha.[200]

    Dr. Benoychandra Sen has also made an analysis of the Jātakas. His work was originally completed in 1926 as a dissertation. In 1974 it was published as a book. He wrote that this collection of stories is a warehouse of information about life and society in ancient India with special reference to the organisation of castes, the rituals, festivals, customs and usages of different communities and groups of people, the economy, etc.[201] The sources of the stock of legends have a pre-Buddhist character. Elements of great antiquity are traceable in some of the Jātakas.[202] Most stories, at least those about kings and prices, have a background in historical fact.[203] The geographical context of the Jātakas not only embraced a large part of India, but also places outside India. The storytellers of the Jātakas were familiar with many other places outside India including Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka and Babylon. Those stories must date from times when active sea-borne trade and commerce was going on between India and a large part of the external world.[204]

    It is possible that the Jātaka-stories were originally myths, legends, parables and homilies; only the verses are the words of the Buddha.[205] If correct, this clearly shows that the Buddha often made use of similes, metaphors, allegories, satires and analogies.[206] For those who heard them, the Jātakas were for probably not much more than what parables are to us. They should not be treated as if they are meant to be accurate ancient history.[207] It would be more appropriate to look upon these birth-stories as homilies used for educational purposes and for inculcating the moral lessons of Buddhism.[208] I think the Buddha and/or his monks used ancient and well-known stories to explain something important. And later monks continued with this practice.

    Venerable Seewali has shown that there are Jātakas where the Bodhisatta's conduct was not exemplary and that there are ethical problems also.[209] The myths and parables that formed the basis of the Jātaka-stories are not intended to show the line of progress in the career of the Bodhisatta.

    In conclusion it can be said that not one single Jātaka-story is a historical description of a former life of the Buddha. The Jātakas are ancient stories with educational objectives. Through the verses they are made “Buddhist”. Probably only a few of them were told by the Buddha himself or his disciples. Monks of later times have added more stories. Only the verses – like the verses of the Dhammapada – are included in the Pāli Canon. The prose stories accompanying them are kept as commentaries. Those stories must not be over-valued, but nevertheless the verses can be understood much better in the context of the background provided by those stories. The stories are illustrative background, only the verses are important in terms of the Dhamma. And we must not forget that a large number of them date from the third century B.C.E. i.e. after the time of the Buddha. They cannot all have been told by the Buddha. And we also have to remember here the prediction of the Buddha that there will come a time when the bhikkhus will not listen to the Dhamma anymore, but only to discourses made in poetical style.[210] The Jātaka stories might be reckoned among that category. It might have been better if the Jātakas from the beginning were classified not as birth stories but as teaching moral lessons, as allegories conveying in a vivid and memorable way the depth of the Bodhisatta’s commitment to helping others no matter how difficult the circumstances. The translation of the samodhāna could then possibly have been: “… and in the same way as those persons in the past acted, likewise is it now with these persons …”

 

Fig. 5

 Bodhisatta, Museum at Nalanda, India

5. Review of the Pāramīs

 

    When and how the aspirant started his career as Buddha-to-be or Mahā Bodhisatta is told in the Buddhavamsa, in the account of Sumedha.[211] According to that story the Buddha Dīpankara confirmed the aspirant’s future success. After this prediction the aspirant reflected on the qualities that had to be perfected to fulfil his goal. These qualities are the ten perfections or pāramīs.[212] The Commentary states that the Buddhavamsa was spoken by the Buddha himself. This is not correct. The Buddhavamsa was included in the Pāli Canon after the Third Council. Like the Jātakas, it is best regarded as having been compiled for educational purposes to illustrate important aspects of the teaching rather than as containing historically true incidents.[213] Seven of the ten Pāramīs are mentioned in the Cariyāpitaka.[214] It is a collection of 35 Jātakas, in verses. The goal of it is to show that the Bodhisatta possessed the Perfections or Pāramīs.[215] The ten pāramis are described in detail by Ācariya Dhammapāla in “The Treatise on the Pāramis”, as counterpart of the Mahāyāna works about the Bodhisattvas. It is found in the Cariyāpitaka Atthakathā. An abridged version is in the Subcommentary to the Brahmajāla Sutta. “The Treatise on the Pāramis” is an account of the Theravāda conception of the practice of the Pāramīs. That work has been translated into English by Venerable Bhikkhu Bodhi and is thus made accessible for others.[216] There is some influence from Mahāyāna, but regarding the Teaching (Dhamma) the work remains within the borders of Theravāda.[217] Other works such as the Vimuttimagga[218] written by Upatissa Thera and the Visuddhimagga[219] composed by Buddhaghosa Thera also deal with the Pāramīs. I consulted two other works with information relating the Pāramīs, namely A Manual of the Excellent Man, Uttamapurisa Dīpanī written by Venerable Ledi Sayadaw[220] and the Chapter ‘Pārami – Perfections,’ in The Buddha and His Teachings written by Venerable Nārada Maha Thera.[221] Both Venerable Ledi Sayadaw and Venerable Nārada Maha Thera have consulted several commentaries. As those commentaries were not at my disposal, I have to rely on what is mentioned by the two Venerable monks. I have used the above-mentioned works together with the Lakkhaņa Sutta[222] to try to show what the Pāramīs are.

 

(1) Generosity (dāna)

 

    The perfection of giving is the volition of relinquishing oneself and one's belongings, accompanied by compassion and skilful means.[223] It has the characteristic of generosity, relinquishing; its function is to destroy attachment to things or to dispel greed for things by giving them away.[224]

    The Bodhisatta develops loving-kindness (mettā) for all beings and gives them fearlessness.[225] He gives preference to beings’ welfare; he dislikes their suffering. He desires their success for a long time; and he is impartial towards all beings. Therefore he gives gifts without discriminating.[226]

    In former existences, being born as a human being, the Bodhisatta undertook mighty deeds to good purpose; unwavering in generosity.[227] He made himself beloved through generosity, giving and helpful acts.[228] He was a giver of fine food, delicious and tasty, hard and soft, and of drinks.[229] He became the foremost in generosity.[230] Established in good will, he was in the habit of giving away gifts of clothing, soft and fine.[231]

    He reunited those who were separated with relatives, friends and companions who had missed them. He reunited mother with child and child with mother, father with child and child with father, brother with brother, brother with sister and sister with brother, making them happy.[232]

    He desired the welfare of the many, their advantage, comfort, freedom from bondage, thinking how they might increase their faith, morality, learning, renunciation, their understanding of the Dhamma, their wisdom, wealth and possessions, their livestock, their wives and children, servants, workers and helpers, their relatives, friends, colleagues and acquaintances.[233] He lived for the happiness of the many, as a dispeller of fright and terror. He was a provider of lawful protection and shelter, and supplied all necessities.[234]

    He abstained from slander. He did not repeat in one place what he had heard elsewhere to the detriment of others. Thus he was a reconciler of those at variance and an encourager of those at one, rejoicing in peace, one who spoke up for peace.[235]

    In short, the Bodhisatta gave both material things and encouraged the development of mental qualities such as fearlessness, concord, harmony, comfort, and security.

 

    The perfection of giving is to be practised by benefiting beings in many ways - by relinquishing one's