The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species by Charles Robert Darwin (top fiction books of all time txt) 📖

inclining rather towards the latter; and we may safely conclude that the parent oxlips had been fertilised by the surrounding primroses.
From the various facts now given, there can be no doubt that the common oxlip is a hybrid between the cowslip (P. veris, Brit. Fl.) and the primrose (P. vulgaris, Brit. Fl.), as has been surmised by several botanists. It is probable that oxlips may be produced either from the cowslip or the primrose as the seed- bearer, but oftenest from the latter, as I judge from the nature of the stations in which oxlips are generally found (2/13. See also on this head Hardwicke's 'Science Gossip' 1867 pages 114, 137.), and from the primrose when crossed by the cowslip being more fertile than, conversely, the cowslip by the primrose. The hybrids themselves are also rather more fertile when crossed with the primrose than with the cowslip. Whichever may be the seed-bearing plant, the cross is probably between different forms of the two species; for we have seen that legitimate hybrid unions are more fertile than illegitimate hybrid unions. Moreover a friend in Surrey found that 29 oxlips which grew in the neighbourhood of his house consisted of 13 long-styled and 16 short-styled plants; now, if the parent-plants had been illegitimately united, either the long- or short-styled form would have greatly preponderated, as we shall hereafter see good reason to believe. The case of the oxlip is interesting; for hardly any other instance is known of a hybrid spontaneously arising in such large numbers over so wide an extent of country. The common oxlip (not the P. elatior of Jacq.) is found almost everywhere throughout England, where both cowslips and primroses grow. In some districts, as I have seen near Hartfield in Sussex and in parts of Surrey, specimens may be found on the borders of almost every field and small wood. In other districts the oxlip is comparatively rare: near my own residence I have found, during the last twenty-five years, not more than five or six plants or groups of plants. It is difficult to conjecture what is the cause of this difference in their number. It is almost necessary that a plant, or several plants belonging to the same form, of one parent-species, should grow near the opposite form of the other parent-species; and it is further necessary that both species should be frequented by the same kind of insect, no doubt a moth. The cause of the rare appearance of the oxlip in certain districts may be the rarity of some moth, which in other districts habitually visits both the primrose and cowslip.
Finally, as the cowslip and primrose differ in the various characters above specified,--as they are in a high degree sterile when intercrossed,--as there is no trustworthy evidence that either species, when uncrossed, has ever given birth to the other species or to any intermediate form,--and as the intermediate forms which are often found in a state of nature have been shown to be more or less sterile hybrids of the first or second generation,--we must for the future look at the cowslip and primrose as good and true species.
Primula elatior, Jacq., or the Bardfield Oxlip, is found in England only in two or three of the eastern counties. On the Continent it has a somewhat different range from that of the cowslip and primrose; and it inhabits some districts where neither of these species live. (2/14. For England, see Hewett C. Watson 'Cybele Britannica' volume 2 1849 page 292. For the Continent, see Lecoq 'Geograph. Botanique de l'Europe' tome 8 1858 page 142. For the Alps see 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History' volume 9 1842 pages 156 and 515.) In general appearance it differs so much from the common oxlip, that no one accustomed to see both forms in the living state could afterwards confound them; but there is scarcely more than a single character by which they can be distinctly defined, namely, their linear-oblong capsules equalling the calyx in length. (2/15. Babington 'Manual of British Botany' 1851 page 258.) The capsules when mature differ conspicuously, owing to their length, from those of the cowslip and primrose. With respect to the fertility of the two forms when these are united in the four possible methods, they behave like the other heterostyled species of the genus, but differ somewhat (see Tables 1.8 and 1.12.) in the smaller proportion of the illegitimately fertilised flowers which set capsules. That P. elatior is not a hybrid is certain, for when the two forms were legitimately united they yielded the large average of 47.1 seeds, and when illegitimately united 35.5 per capsule; whereas, of the four possible unions (Table 2.14) between the two forms of the common oxlip which we know to be a hybrid, one alone yielded any seed; and in this case the average number was only 11.6 per capsule. Moreover I could not detect a single bad pollen-grain in the anthers of the short-styled P. elatior; whilst in two short-styled plants of the common oxlip all the grains were bad, as were a large majority in a third plant. As the common oxlip is a hybrid between the primrose and cowslip, it is not surprising that eight long-styled flowers of the primrose, fertilised by pollen from the long-styled common oxlip, produced eight capsules (Table 1.18), containing, however, only a low average of seeds; whilst the same number of flowers of the primrose, similarly fertilised by the long-styled Bardfield oxlip, produced only a single capsule; this latter plant being an altogether distinct species from the primrose. Plants of P. elatior have been propagated by seed in a garden for twenty-five years, and have kept all this time quite constant, excepting that in some cases the flowers varied a little in size and tint. (2/16. See Mr. H. Doubleday in the 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1867 page 435, also Mr. W. Marshall ibid. page 462.) Nevertheless, according to Mr. H.C. Watson and Dr. Bromfield (2/17. 'Phytologist' volume 1 page 1001 and volume 3 page 695.), plants may be occasionally found in a state of nature, in which most of the characters by which this species can be distinguished from P. veris and vulgaris fail; but such intermediate forms are probably due to hybridisation; for Kerner states, in the paper before referred to, that hybrids sometimes, though rarely, arise in the Alps between P. elatior and veris.
Finally, although we may freely admit that Primula veris, vulgaris, and elatior, as well as all the other species of the genus, are descended from a common primordial form, yet from the facts above given, we must conclude that these three forms are now as fixed in character as are many others which are universally ranked as true species. Consequently they have as good a right to receive distinct specific names as have, for instance, the ass, quagga, and zebra.
Mr. Scott has arrived at some interesting results by crossing other heterostyled species of Primula. (2/18. 'Journal of the Linnean Society Botany' volume 8 1864 page 93 to end.) I have already alluded to his statement, that in four instances (not to mention others) a species when crossed with a distinct one yielded a larger number of seeds than the same species fertilised illegitimately with its own-form pollen, though taken from a distinct plant. It has long been known from the researches of Kolreuter and Gartner, that two species when crossed reciprocally sometimes differ as widely as is possible in their fertility: thus A when crossed with the pollen of B will yield a large number of seeds, whilst B may be crossed repeatedly with pollen of A, and will never yield a single seed. Now Mr. Scott shows in several cases that the same law holds good when two heterostyled species of Primula are intercrossed, or when one is crossed with a homostyled species. But the results are much more complicated than with ordinary plants, as two heterostyled dimorphic species can be intercrossed in eight different ways. I will give one instance from Mr. Scott. The long-styled P. hirsuta fertilised legitimately and illegitimately with pollen from the two forms of P. auricula, and reciprocally the long-styled P. auricula fertilised legitimately and illegitimately with pollen from the two forms of P. hirsuta, did not produce a single seed. Nor did the short-styled P. hirsuta when fertilised legitimately and illegitimately with the pollen of the two forms of P. auricula. On the other hand, the short-styled P. auricula fertilised with pollen from the long-styled P. hirsuta yielded capsules containing on an average no less than 56 seeds; and the short-styled P. auricula by pollen of the short- styled P. hirsuta yielded capsules containing on an average 42 seeds per capsule. So that out of the eight possible unions between the two forms of these two species, six were utterly barren, and two fairly fertile. We have seen also the same sort of extraordinary irregularity in the results of my twenty different crosses (Tables 2.14 to 2.18), between the two forms of the oxlip, primrose, and cowslip. Mr. Scott remarks, with respect to the results of his trials, that they are very surprising, as they show us that "the sexual forms of a species manifest in their respective powers for conjunction with those of another species, physiological peculiarities which might well entitle them, by the criterion of fertility, to specific distinction."
Finally, although P. veris and vulgaris, when crossed legitimately, and especially when their hybrid offspring are crossed in this manner with both parent-species, were decidedly more fertile, than when crossed in an illegitimate manner, and although the legitimate cross effected by Mr. Scott between P. auricula and hirsuta was more fertile, in the ratio of 56 to 42, than the illegitimate cross, nevertheless it is very doubtful, from the extreme irregularity of the results in the various other hybrid crosses made by Mr. Scott, whether it can be predicted that two heterostyled species are generally more fertile if crossed legitimately (i.e. when opposite forms are united) than when crossed illegitimately.


SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON SOME WILD HYBRID VERBASCUMS.
In an early part of this chapter I remarked that few other instances could be given of a hybrid spontaneously arising in such large numbers, and over so wide an extent of country, as that of the common oxlip; but perhaps the number of well-ascertained cases of naturally produced hybrid willows is equally great. (2/19. Max Wichura 'Die Bastardbefruchtung etc. der Weiden' 1865.) Numerous spontaneous hybrids between several species of Cistus, found near Narbonne, have been carefully described by M. Timbal-Lagrave (2/20. 'Mem. de l'Acad. des Sciences de Toulouse' 5e serie tome 5 page 28.), and many hybrids between an Aceras and Orchis have been observed by Dr. Weddell. (2/21. 'Annales des Sc. Nat.' 3e serie Bot. tome 18 page 6.) In the genus Verbascum, hybrids are supposed to have often originated in a state of nature (2/22. See for instance the 'English Flora' by Sir J.E. Smith 1824 volume 1 page 307.); some of these undoubtedly are hybrids, and several hybrids have originated in gardens; but most of these cases require, as Gartner remarks, verification. (2/23. See Gartner 'Bastarderzeugung' 1849 page 590.) Hence the following case is worth recording, more especially as the two species in question, V. thapsus and lychnitis, are perfectly fertile when insects are excluded, showing that the stigma of each flower receives its own pollen. Moreover the flowers offer only pollen to insects, and have not been rendered attractive to them by secreting nectar.
I transplanted a young wild plant into my garden for experimental purposes, and when it flowered it plainly differed from the two species just mentioned and from a third which grows in this neighbourhood. I thought that it was a strange variety of V. thapsus. It attained the height (by measurement) of 8 feet! It was covered with a net, and ten flowers were fertilised with pollen from the same plant; later in