The Evolution of Man, vol 2 by Ernst Haeckel (the top 100 crime novels of all time TXT) 📖

(FIGURE 2.253. A Devonian Crossopterygius (Holoptychius nobilissimus, from the Scotch old red sandstone. (From Huxley.)

FIGURE 2.254. A Jurassic Crossopterygius (Undina penicillata), from the upper Jurassic at Eichstatt. (From Zittel.) j jugular plates, b three ribbed scales.

FIGURE 2.255. A living Crossopterygius, from the Upper Nile (Polypterus bichir).

FIGURE 2.256. Fossil Dipneust (Dipterus Valenciennesi), from the old red sandstone (Devon). (From Pander.)

FIGURE 2.257. The Australian Dipneust (Ceratodus Forsteri). B view from the right, A lower side of the skull, C lower jaw. (From Gunther.) Qu quadrate bone, Psph parasphenoid, PtP pterygopalatinum, Vo vomer, d teeth, na nostrils, Br branchial cavity, C first rib. D lower-jaw teeth of the fossil Ceratodus Kaupi (from the Triassic).)

The vertebrate class, that thus adapted itself to breathing the atmosphere, and was developed from a branch of the Ganoids, takes the name of the Dipneusts or Dipnoa (“double-breathers”), because they retained the earlier gill-respiration along with the new pulmonary (lung) respiration, like the lowest amphibia. This class was represented during the paleozoic age (or the Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian periods) by a number of different genera. There are only three genera of the class living to-day: Protopterus annectens in the rivers of tropical Africa (the White Nile, the Niger, Quelliman, etc.), Lepidosiren paradoxa in tropical South America (in the tributaries of the Amazon), and Ceratodus Forsteri in the rivers of East Australia. This wide distribution of the three isolated survivors proves that they represent a group that was formerly very large. In their whole structure they form a transition from the fishes to the amphibia. The transitional formation between the two classes is so pronounced in the whole organisation of these remarkable animals that zoologists had a lively controversy over the question whether they were really fishes or amphibia. Several distinguished zoologists classed them with the amphibia, though most now associate them with the fishes. As a matter of fact, the characters of the two classes are so far united in the Dipneusts that the answer to the question depends entirely on the definition we give of “fish” and “amphibian.” In habits they are true amphibia. During the tropical winter, in the rainy season, they swim in the water like the fishes, and breathe water by gills. During the dry season they bury themselves in the dry mud, and breathe the atmosphere through lungs, like the amphibia and the higher vertebrates. In this double respiration they resemble the lower amphibia, and have the same characteristic formation of the heart; in this they are much superior to the fishes. But in most other features they approach nearer to the fishes, and are inferior to the amphibia. Externally they are entirely fish-like.

(FIGURE 2.258. Young ceratodus, shortly after issuing from the egg, magnified ten times. k gill-cover, l liver. (From Richard Semon.)

FIGURE 2.259. Young ceratodus six weeks after issuing from the egg. s spiral fold of gut, b rudimentary belly-fin. (From Richard Semon.))

In the Dipneusts the head is not marked off from the trunk. The skin is covered with large scales. The skeleton is soft, cartilaginous, and at a low stage of development, as in the lower Selachii and the earliest Ganoids. The chorda is completely retained, and surrounded by an unsegmented sheath. The two pairs of limbs are very simple fins of a primitive type, like those of the lowest Selachii. The formation of the brain, the gut, and the sexual organs is also the same as in the Selachii. Thus the Dipneusts have preserved by heredity many of the less advanced features of our primitive fish-like ancestors, and at the same time have made a great step forward in adaptation to air-breathing by means of lungs and the correlative improvement of the heart.

Ceratodus is particularly interesting on account of the primitive build of its skeleton; the cartilaginous skeleton of its two pairs of fins, for instance, has still the original form of a biserial or feathered leaf, and was on that account described by Gegenbaur as a “primitive fin-skeleton.” On the other hand, the skeleton of the pairs of fins is greatly reduced in the African dipneust (Protopterus) and the American (Lepidosiren). Further, the lungs are double in these modern dipneusts, as in all the other air-breathing vertebrates; they have on that account been called “double-lunged” (Dipneumones) in contrast to the Ceratodus; the latter has only a single lung (Monopneumones). At the same time the gills also are developed as water-breathing organs in all these lung-fishes. Protopterus has external as well as internal gills.

The paleozoic Dipneusts that are in the direct line of our ancestry, and form the connecting-bridge between the Ganoids and the Amphibia, differ in many respects from their living descendants, but agree with them in the above essential features. This is confirmed by a number of interesting facts that have lately come to our knowledge in connection with the embryonic development of the Ceratodus and Lepidosiren; they give us important information as to the stem-history of the lower Vertebrates, and therefore of our early ancestors of the paleozoic age.

CHAPTER 2.22. OUR FIVE-TOED ANCESTORS.

With the phylogenetic study of the four higher classes of Vertebrates, which must now engage our attention, we reach much firmer ground and more light in the construction of our genealogy than we have, perhaps, enjoyed up to the present. In the first place, we owe a number of very valuable data to the very interesting class of Vertebrates that come next to the Dipneusts and have been developed from them—the Amphibia. To this group belong the salamander, the frog, and the toad. In earlier days all the reptiles were, on the example of Linne, classed with the Amphibia (lizards, serpents, crocodiles, and tortoises). But the reptiles are much more advanced than the Amphibia, and are nearer to the birds in the chief points of their structure. The true Amphibia are nearer to the Dipneusta and the fishes; they are also much older than the reptiles. There were plenty of highly-developed (and sometimes large) Amphibia during the Carboniferous period; but the earliest reptiles are only found in the Permian period. It is probable that the Amphibia were evolved even earlier—during the Devonian period—from the Dipneusta. The extinct Amphibia of which we have fossil remains from that remote period (very numerous especially in the Triassic strata) were distinguished for a graceful scaly coat or a powerful bony armour on the skin (like the crocodile), whereas the living amphibia have usually a smooth and slippery skin.

The earliest of these armoured Amphibia (Phractamphibia) form the order of Stegocephala (“roof-headed”) (Figure 2.260). It is among these, and not among the actual Amphibia, that we must look for the forms that are directly related to the genealogy of our race, and are the ancestors of the three higher classes of Vertebrates. But even the existing Amphibia have such important relations to us in their anatomic structure, and especially their embryonic development, that we may say: Between the Dipneusts and the Amniotes there was a series of extinct intermediate forms which we should certainly class with the Amphibia if we had them before us. In their whole organisation even the actual Amphibia seem to be an instructive transitional group. In the important respects of respiration and circulation they approach very closely to the Dipneusta, though in other respects they are far superior to them.

This is particularly true of the development of their limbs or extremities. In them we find these for the first time as five-toed feet. The thorough investigations of Gegenbaur have shown that the fish’s fins, of which very erroneous opinions were formerly held, are many-toed feet. The various cartilaginous or bony radii that are found in large numbers in each fin correspond to the fingers or toes of the higher Vertebrates. The several joints of each fin-radius correspond to the various parts of the toe. Even in the Dipneusta the fin is of the same construction as in the fishes; it was afterwards gradually evolved into the five-toed form, which we first encounter in the Amphibia. This reduction of the number of the toes to six, and then to five, probably took place in the second half of the Devonian period—at the latest, in the subsequent Carboniferous period—in those Dipneusta which we regard as the ancestors of the Amphibia. We have several fossil remains of five-toed Amphibia from this period. There are numbers of fossil impressions of them in the Triassic of Thuringia (Chirotherium).

(FIGURE 2.260. Fossil amphibian from the Permian, found in the Plauen terrain near Dresden (Branchiosaurus amblystomus). (From Credner.) A skeleton of a young larva. B larva, restored, with gills. C the adult form, natural size.)

The fact that the toes number five is of great importance, because they have clearly been transmitted from the Amphibia to all the higher Vertebrates. Man entirely resembles his amphibian ancestors in this respect, and indeed in the whole structure of the bony skeleton of his five-toed extremities. A careful comparison of the skeleton of the frog with our own is enough to show this. It is well known that this hereditary number of the toes has assumed a very great practical importance from remote times; on it our whole system of enumeration (the decimal system applied to measurement of time, mass, weight, etc.) is based. There is absolutely no reason why there should be five toes in the fore and hind feet in the lowest Amphibia, the reptiles, and the higher Vertebrates, unless we ascribe it to inheritance from a common stem-form. Heredity alone can explain it. It is true that we find less than five toes in many of the Amphibia and of the higher Vertebrates. But in all these cases we can prove that some of the toes atrophied, and were in time lost altogether.

The causes of this evolution of the five-toed foot from the many-toed fin in the amphibian ancestor must be sought in adaptation to the entire change of function that the limbs experienced in passing from an exclusively aquatic to a partly terrestrial life. The many-toed fin had been used almost solely for motion in the water; it had now also to support the body in creeping on the solid ground. This led to a modification both of the skeleton and the muscles of the limbs. The number of the fin-radii was gradually reduced, and sank finally to five. But these five remaining radii became much stronger. The soft cartilaginous radii became bony rods. The rest of the skeleton was similarly strengthened. Thus from the one-armed lever of the many-toed fish-fin arose the improved many-armed lever system of the five-toed amphibian limbs. The movements of the body gained in variety as well as in strength. The various parts of the skeletal system and correlated muscular system began to differentiate more and more. In view of the close correlation of the muscular and nervous systems, this also made great advance in structure and function. Hence we find, as a matter of fact, that the brain is much more developed in the higher Amphibia than in the fishes, the Dipneusta, and the lower Amphibia.

The first advance in organisation that was occasioned by the adoption of life on land was naturally the construction of an organ for breathing air—a lung. This was formed directly from the floating-bladder inherited from the fishes. At first its function was insignificant beside that of the gills, the older organ for water-respiration. Hence we find in the lowest Amphibia, the gilled Amphibia, that, like the Dipneusta, they pass the greater part of their life in the water, and breathe water through gills. They only come to the surface at brief intervals, or creep on to the land, and then breathe air by their lungs. But some of the tailed Amphibia—the salamanders—remain entirely in the water when they are young, and afterwards spend most of their time on land. In the adult state they only