Disease and Its Causes by William Thomas Councilman (top novels .txt) 📖

terminations of the air tubes. The situation renders it evident that the organisms which caused the lesions entered the lung by the air tubes. The mouth of the child is unclean and harbors numbers of the same sort of organisms as those causing the lung inflammation; but in the absence of such a mode of infection as is given by spray formation it is difficult to see how the extension from the mouth to the lungs could take place. The weakened condition of the body in these cases favors the secondary infection.

If the disease be located in the intestines, as in typhoid fever and dysentery, the organisms are contained in the fecal discharges, and by means of these the infection is extended. In typhoid fever, dysentery and cholera massive infections of the populace may take place from the contamination of a water supply and the disease be extended over an entire city. One of the most striking instances of this mode of extension was in the epidemic of cholera in Hamburg in 1892. There were two sources of water supply, one of which was infected, and the cases were distributed in the city in the track of the infected supply. Many such instances have been seen in typhoid fever. Certain articles of food, particularly milk, serve as sources of infection. This is more apt to happen when the organism causing the infection grows easily outside of the body. A few such organisms entering into the milk can multiply enormously in a few hours and increase the amount of infectious material. In all these cases the sick individual remains a source of infection, for it is almost impossible to avoid some contamination of the body and the immediate surroundings with the organisms contained in the discharges.

Transmission by air plays but little part in the extension of infection. In such a disease as smallpox, where the localization is on the surface of the body, the organisms are contained in or on the thin epithelial scales which are constantly given off. These are light, and may remain floating in the air and carried by air currents just as is the pollen of plants. There seem to have been cases of smallpox where other modes of more direct transmission could be excluded and in which the organisms were carried in the air over a considerable space. All sorts of intermediate objects, both living and inanimate, such as persons, domestic animals, toys, books, money, etc., can serve as conveyors of infection.

Insects play a most important part in the transmission of disease, and in certain cases, as when a disease is localized in the blood, this is the only means of transmission. There are three ways in which the insect plays the rôle of conveyor.

1. The insect may play a purely passive part in that its exterior surface becomes contaminated with the discharges of the sick person, and in this way the organisms of disease may be conveyed to articles of food, etc. The ordinary house fly conveys in this way the organisms of typhoid and dysentery. Flies seek the discharges not only for food, but for the purpose of depositing their eggs, and the hairy and irregular surface of their feet facilitates contamination and conveyance. When flies eat such discharges the organisms may pass through the alimentary canal unchanged and be deposited with their feces; they also often vomit or regurgitate food, and in this way also contaminate objects. Flies very greedily devour the sputum of tuberculous patients, and the tubercle bacilli contained in this pass through them unchanged and are deposited in their feces.

Fig. 19.—Trypanosomes From Birds. All the trypanosomes are very much alike. They contain a nucleus represented by the dark area in the centre and a fur-like membrane terminating in a long whip-like flagellum. They have the power of very active motion within the blood.

Fig. 19.—Trypanosomes From Birds. All the trypanosomes are very much alike. They contain a nucleus represented by the dark area in the centre and a fur-like membrane terminating in a long whip-like flagellum. They have the power of very active motion within the blood.

2. Diseases which are localized in the blood are transmitted by biting flies. The biting apparatus becomes contaminated with the organisms contained in the blood, and these are directly inoculated into the blood of the next victim. The trypanosome diseases form the best example of this mode of transmission. The trypanosomes are widely distributed, exclusively parasitic, flagellated protozoa which live in the blood of a large number of animals and birds (Fig. 19). They may give rise to fatal diseases, but in most cases there is mutual adaptation of host and parasite and they seem to do no harm. One of the most dangerous diseases in man, the African sleeping sickness, is caused by a trypanosome, and the disease of domestic cattle in Africa, nagana, or tsetse fly disease, is also so produced. In certain regions of Africa where a biting fly, the Glossina morsitans, occurs in large numbers, it has long been known that cattle bitten by these flies sickened and died, and this prevented the settling and use of the land. In the blood of the sick cattle swarms of trypanosomes are found. The source from which the tsetse fly obtained the trypanosomes which it conveyed to the cattle was unknown until it was discovered that similar trypanosomes exist in the blood of the wild animals which inhabit the region, but these have acquired by long residence in the region immunity or adaptation to the parasite and no disease is produced. With the gradual extension of settlement of the country and the accompanying destruction of wild life the disease is diminishing. Some of the inter-relations of infections are interesting. The destruction of wild animals in South Africa which, by removing the sources of nagana, rendered the settlement of the country possible was due chiefly to the introduction of another infectious disease, rinderpest, which not only destroyed the wild animals but produced great destruction of the domestic cattle as well.

The sleeping sickness has many features of interest. In the old slavery days it was found that the negroes from the Congo region in the course of the voyage or after they were landed sometimes were affected with a peculiar disease. They were lethargic, took little notice of their surroundings, slept easily and finally passed into a condition of somnolence in which they took no food and gradually died. There was no extension of the disease and it was attributed to extreme homesickness and depression. A similar disease has been known for more than one hundred years on the west coast of Africa, and attracted a good deal of interest and curiosity on account of the peculiar lethargy which it produced and from which it has received the name of "sleeping sickness." Although apparently infectious in its native haunts, it lost the power of spreading from man upon removal to regions where it did not prevail. At first confined to a very small region on the Niger river, it gradually extended with the development of trade routes and the general increase of communications which trade brings, until it prevails in the entire Congo basin, in the British and German possessions in East Africa, and is extending north and south of these regions. The cause of the disease and its mode of conveyance was discovered in 1903. The fly Glossina palpalis which conveys the disease is a biting fly about the size of the common house fly and lives chiefly in the vicinity of water. When such a fly bites an individual who has sleeping sickness its bite can convey the disease to monkeys, on whom the transmission experiments were made. After biting the fly is infectious for a period of two days. After this it is harmless, unless it again obtains a supply of living trypanosomes. There is quite a period in which there are no symptoms of the disease, although trypanosomes are found in the blood and in the lymph nodes, and the individual is a source of infection. The peculiar lethargy which has given the disease its name does not appear until the nervous system is invaded by the parasites. It is impossible to compute accurately the numbers of deaths from this disease—in the region of Victoria Nyanza alone the estimates extend to hundreds of thousands.

3. In the third mode of insect conveyance the insect does not play a merely passive rôle, but becomes a part of the disease, itself undergoing infection, and a period in the life cycle of the organism takes place within it. In all these cases quite a period of time must elapse before the insect is capable of transmitting the disease; in malaria, which is the best type of such a disease, this period is ten days. Malaria is due to a small protozoan, the Plasmodium malariæ, which was discovered by Lavaran, a French investigator, in 1882. The organism lives within or on the surface of the red blood corpuscles. It first appears as a very minute colorless body with active amoeboid movements, and increases in size, attacks a succession of corpuscles, and finally attains a size as large as or larger than a corpuscle. The corpuscles attacked become pale by the destruction of hæmoglobin, swell up and disintegrate, the hæmoglobin becoming converted into granules of black pigment inside the parasite. Having attained a definite size the organism forms a rosette and divides into a number of forms similar to the smallest seen inside the corpuscles; these small forms enter other corpuscles and the cycle again begins. This cycle of development takes place in forty-eight hours, and segmentation is always accompanied by a paroxysm of the disease shown in a chill followed by fever and sweating which is due to the effect of substances liberated by the organism at the time of segmentation. A patient may have two crops of the parasite developing independently in the blood, and the two periods of segmentation give a paroxysm for each, so that the paroxysms may appear at intervals of twenty-four hours instead of forty-eight (Fig. 20). This cycle of development may continue for an indefinite time, and there may be such a rapid increase in the parasites as to bring about the death of the individual; but with him the parasite would also perish, for there would be no way of extending the infection and providing a new crop. The disease has been transmitted by injecting the infected blood into a normal individual.

Fig. 20.—Part Of The Cycle Of Development Of The Organism Of Malaria, a-g, Cycle of forty-eight hour development, the period of chill coinciding with the appearance of f and g in the blood. The organisms g, which result from segmentation, attack other corpuscles and a new cycle begins. h, The male form or microgametocyte, with the protruding and actively moving spermatozoa, one of which is shown free. i and j are the macrogametes or female forms. k shows one of these in the act of being fertilized by the entering spermatozoön. The differentiation into male and female forms takes place in the blood, the further development of the sexual cycle within the mosquito.

Fig. 20.—Part Of The Cycle Of Development Of The Organism Of Malaria, a-g, Cycle of forty-eight hour development, the period of chill coinciding with the appearance of f and g in the blood. The organisms g, which result from segmentation, attack other corpuscles and a new cycle begins. h, The male form or microgametocyte, with the protruding and actively moving spermatozoa, one of which is shown free. i and j are the macrogametes or female forms. k shows one of these in the act of being fertilized by the entering spermatozoön. The differentiation into male and female forms takes place in the blood, the further development of the sexual cycle within the mosquito.

If a mosquito of the species anopheles bites the affected person, it obtains a large amount of blood which contains