An Introductory Course of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Henry P. Talbot (good short books .TXT) 📖

solution, and the comparative strength of the bases is measured by their relative dissociation in solutions of equivalent concentration. Ammonium hydroxide is a weak base, as shown in the table above, while the hydroxides of sodium and potassium exhibit strongly basic properties.

Ionic reactions are all, to a greater or less degree, !reversible reactions!. A typical example of an easily reversible reaction is that representing the changes in ionization which an electrolyte such as acetic acid undergoes on dilution or concentration of its solutions, !i.e.!, HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} <—> H^{+} + C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-}. As was stated above, the ionization increases with dilution, the reaction then proceeding from left to right, while concentration of the solution occasions a partial reassociation of the ions, and the reaction proceeds from right to left. To understand the principle underlying these changes it is necessary to consider first the conditions which prevail when a solution of acetic acid, which has been stirred until it is of uniform concentration throughout, has come to a constant temperature. A careful study of such solutions has shown that there is a definite state of equilibrium between the constituents of the solution; that is, there is a definite relation between the undissociated acetic acid and its ions, which is characteristic for the prevailing conditions. It is not, however, assumed that this is a condition of static equilibrium, but rather that there is continual dissociation and association, as represented by the opposing reactions, the apparent condition of rest resulting from the fact that the amount of change in one direction during a given time is exactly equal to that in the opposite direction. A quantitative study of the amount of undissociated acid, and of H^{+} ions and C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-} ions actually to be found in a large number of solutions of acetic acid of varying dilution (assuming them to be in a condition of equilibrium at a common temperature), has shown that there is always a definite relation between these three quantities which may be expressed thus:

(!Conc'n H^{+} x Conc'n C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-})/Conc'n HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} =
Constant!.

In other words, there is always a definite and constant ratio between the product of the concentrations of the ions and the concentration of the undissociated acid when conditions of equilibrium prevail.

It has been found, further, that a similar statement may be made regarding all reversible reactions, which may be expressed in general terms thus: The rate of chemical change is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the substances taking part in the reaction; or, if conditions of equilibrium are considered in which, as stated, the rate of change in opposite directions is assumed to be equal, then the product of the concentrations of the substances entering into the reaction stands in a constant ratio to the product of the concentrations of the resulting substances, as given in the expression above for the solutions of acetic acid. This principle is called the !Law of Mass Action!.

It should be borne in mind that the expression above for acetic acid applies to a wide range of dilutions, provided the temperature remains constant. If the temperature changes the value of the constant changes somewhat, but is again uniform for different dilutions at that temperature. The following data are given for temperatures of about 18°C.[1]

==========================================================================
              | | | |
    MOLAL | FRACTION | MOLAL CONCENTRA- | MOLAL CONCENTRA- | VALUE OF
CONCENTRATION | IONIZED | TION OF H^{+} AND| TION OF UNDIS- | CONSTANT
  CONSTANT | | ACETATE^{-} IONS | SOCIATED ACID |
______________|__________|__________________|__________________|__________
              | | | |
     1.0 | .004 | .004 | .996 | .0000161
              | | | |
     0.1 | .013 | .0013 | .0987 | .0000171
              | | | |
     0.01 | .0407 | .000407 | .009593 | .0000172
              | | | |
===========================================================================

[Footnote 1: Alexander Smith, !General Inorganic Chemistry!, p. 579.]

The molal concentrations given in the table refer to fractions of a gram-molecule per liter of the undissociated acid, and to fractions of the corresponding quantities of H^{+} and C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-} ions per liter which would result from the complete dissociation of a gram-molecule of acetic acid. The values calculated for the constant are subject to some variation on account of experimental errors in determining the percentage ionized in each case, but the approximate agreement between the values found for molal and centimolal (one hundredfold dilution) is significant.

The figures given also illustrate the general principle, that the !relative! ionization of an electrolyte increases with the dilution of its solution. If we consider what happens during the (usually) brief period of dilution of the solution from molal to 0.1 molal, for example, it will be seen that on the addition of water the conditions of concentration which led to equality in the rate of change, and hence to equilibrium in the molal solution, cease to exist; and since the dissociating tendency increases with dilution, as just stated, it is true at the first instant after the addition of water that the concentration of the undissociated acid is too great to be permanent under the new conditions of dilution, and the reaction, HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} <—> H^{+} + C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{-}, will proceed from left to right with great rapidity until the respective concentrations adjust themselves to the new conditions.

That which is true of this reaction is also true of all reversible reactions, namely, that any change of conditions which occasions an increase or a decrease in concentration of one or more of the components causes the reaction to proceed in one direction or the other until a new state of equilibrium is established. This principle is constantly applied throughout the discussion of the applications of the ionic theory in analytical chemistry, and it should be clearly understood that whenever an existing state of equilibrium is disturbed as a result of changes of dilution or temperature, or as a consequence of chemical changes which bring into action any of the constituents of the solution, thus altering their concentrations, there is always a tendency to re-establish this equilibrium in accordance with the law. Thus, if a base is added to the solution of acetic acid the H^{+} ions then unite with the OH^{-} ions from the base to form undissociated water. The concentration of the H^{+} ions is thus diminished, and more of the acid dissociates in an attempt to restore equilbrium, until finally practically all the acid is dissociated and neutralized.

Similar conditions prevail when, for example, silver ions react with chloride ions, or barium ions react with sulphate ions. In the former case the dissociation reaction of the silver nitrate is AgNO_{3} <—> Ag^{+} + NO_{3}^{-}, and as soon as the Ag^{+} ions unite with the Cl^{-} ions the concentration of the former is diminished, more of the AgNO_{3} dissociates, and this process goes on until the Ag^{+} ions are practically all removed from the solution, if the Cl^{-} ions are present in sufficient quantity.

For the sake of accuracy it should be stated that the mass law cannot be rigidly applied to solutions of those electrolytes which are largely dissociated. While the explanation of the deviation from quantitative exactness in these cases is not known, the law is still of marked service in developing analytical methods along more logical lines than was formerly practicable. It has not seemed wise to qualify each statement made in the Notes to indicate this lack of quantitative exactness. The student should recognize its existence, however, and will realize its significance better as his knowledge of physical chemistry increases.

If we apply the mass law to the case of a substance of small solubility, such as the compounds usually precipitated in quantitative analysis, we derive what is known as the !solubility product!, as follows: Taking silver chloride as an example, and remembering that it is not absolutely insoluble in water, the equilibrium expression for its solution is:

(!Conc'n Ag^{+} x Conc'n Cl^{-})/Conc'n AgCl = Constant!.

But such a solution of silver chloride which is in contact with the solid precipitate must be saturated for the existing temperature, and the quantity of undissociated AgCl in the solution is definite and constant for that temperature. Since it is a constant, it may be eliminated, and the expression becomes !Conc'n Ag^{+} x Conc'n Cl^{-} = Constant!, and this is known as the solubility product. No precipitation of a specific substance will occur until the product of the concentrations of its ions in a solution exceeds the solubility product for that substance; whenever that product is exceeded precipitation must follow.

It will readily be seen that if a substance which yields an ion in common with the precipitated compound is added to such a solution as has just been described, the concentration of that ion is increased, and as a result the concentration of the other ion must proportionately decrease, which can only occur through the formation of some of the undissociated compound which must separate from the already saturated solution. This explains why the addition of an excess of the precipitant is often advantageous in quantitative procedures. Such a case is discussed at length in Note 2 on page 113.

Similarly, the ionization of a specific substance in solution tends to diminish on the addition of another substance with a common ion, as, for instance, the addition of hydrochloric acid to a solution of hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide is a weak acid, and the concentration of the hydrogen ions in its aqueous solutions is very small. The equilibrium in such a solution may be represented as:

(!(Conc'n H^{+})^{2} x Conc'n S^{—})/Conc'n H_{2}S = Constant!, and a marked increase in the concentration of the H^{+} ions, such as would result from the addition of even a small amount of the highly ionized hydrochloric acid, displaces the point of equilibrium and some of the S^{—} ions unite with H^{+} ions to form undissociated H_{2}S. This is of much importance in studying the reactions in which hydrogen sulphide is employed, as in qualitative analysis. By a parallel course of reasoning it will be seen that the addition of a salt of a weak acid or base to solutions of that acid or base make it, in effect, still weaker because they decrease its percentage ionization.

To understand the changes which occur when solids are dissolved where chemical action is involved, it should be remembered that no substance is completely insoluble in water, and that those products of a chemical change which are least dissociated will first form. Consider, for example, the action of hydrochloric acid upon magnesium hydroxide. The minute quantity of dissolved hydroxide dissociates thus: Mg(OH){2} <—> Mg^{++} + 2OH^{-}. When the acid is introduced, the H^{+} ions of the acid unite with the OH^{-} ions to form undissociated water. The concentration of the OH^{-} ions is thus diminished, more Mg(OH){2} dissociates, the solution is no longer saturated with the undissociated compound, and more of the solid dissolves. This process repeats itself with great rapidity until, if sufficient acid is present, the solid passes completely into solution.

Exactly the same sort of