The Evolution of Man, vol 2 by Ernst Haeckel (the top 100 crime novels of all time TXT) 📖

the large parietal bone, p. s the scurf bone, w mastoid fontanelle, f petrous bone, t tympanic bone, l lateral part, b bulla, j cheek-bone, a large wing of cuneiform bone, k fontanelle of cuneiform bone.)

But this unsegmented primary axial skeleton is soon replaced by the segmented secondary axial skeleton, which we know as the vertebral column. The provertebral plates (Figure 1.124 s) differentiate from the innermost, median part of the visceral layer of the coelom-pouches at each side of the chorda. As they grow round the chorda and enclose it they form the skeleton plate or skeletogenetic layer—that is to say, the skeleton-forming stratum of cells, which provides the mobile foundation of the permanent vertebral column and skull (scleroblast). In the head-half of the embryo the skeletal plate remains a continuous, simple, undivided layer of tissue, and presently enlarges into a thin-walled capsule enclosing the brain, the primordial skull. In the trunk-half the provertebral plate divides into a number of homogeneous, cubical, successive pieces; these are the several primitive vertebrae. They are not numerous at first, but soon increase as the embryo grows longer (Figures 1.153 to 1.155).

(FIGURE 2.334. Head-skeleton of a primitive fish, n nasal pit, eth cribriform bone region, orb orbit of eye, la wall of auscultory labyrinth, occ occipital region of primitive skull, cv vertebral column, a fore, bc hind-lip cartilage, o primitive upper jaw (palatoquadratum), u primitive lower jaw, II hyaloid bone, III to VIII first to sixth branchial arches. (From Gegenbaur.)

FIGURE 2.335. Roofs of the skulls of nine Primates (Cattarrhines), seen from above and reduced to a common size. 1 European, 2 Brazilian, 3 Pithecanthropus, 4 Gorilla, 5 Chimpanzee, 6 Orang, 7 Gibbon, 8 Tailed ape, 9 Baboon.)

In all the Craniotes the soft, indifferent cells of the mesoderm, which originally compose the skeletal plate, are afterwards converted for the most part into cartilaginous cells, and these secrete a firm and elastic intercellular substance between them, and form cartilaginous tissue. Like most of the other parts of the skeleton, the membranous rudiments of the vertebrae soon pass into a cartilaginous state, and in the higher Vertebrates this is afterwards replaced by the hard osseous tissue with its characteristic stellate cells (Figure 1.6). The primary axial skeleton remains a simple chorda throughout life in the Acrania, the Cyclostomes, and the lowest fishes. In most of the other Vertebrates the chorda is more or less replaced by the cartilaginous tissue of the secondary perichorda that grows round it. In the lower Craniotes (especially the fishes) a more or less considerable part of the chorda is preserved in the bodies of the vertebrae. In the mammals it disappears for the most part. By the end of the second month in the human embryo the chorda is merely a slender thread, running through the axis of the thick, cartilaginous vertebral column (Figures 1.182 ch and 2.329 ch). In the cartilaginous vertebral bodies themselves, which afterwards ossify, the slender remnant of the chorda presently disappears (Figure 2.330 ch). But in the elastic intervertebral disks, which develop from the skeletal plate between each pair of vertebral bodies (Figure 2.329 li), a relic of the chorda remains permanently. In the new-born child there is a large pear-shaped cavity in each intervertebral disk, filled with a gelatinous mass of cells (Figure 2.331 a). Though less sharply defined, this gelatinous nucleus of the elastic cartilaginous disks persists throughout life in the mammals, but in the birds and most reptiles the last trace of the chorda disappears. In the subsequent ossification of the cartilaginous vertebra the first deposit of bony matter (“first osseous nucleus”) takes place in the vertebral body immediately round the remainder of the chorda, and soon displaces it altogether. Then there is a special osseous nucleus formed in each half of the vertebral arch. The ossification does not reach the point at which the three nuclei are joined until after birth. In the first year the two osseous halves of the arches unite; but it is much later—in the second to the eighth year—that they connect with the osseous vertebral bodies.

(FIGURE 2.336. Skeleton of the breast-fin of Ceratodus (biserial feathered skeleton). A, B, cartilaginous series of the fin-stem. rr cartilaginous fin-radii. (From Gunther.)

FIGURE 2.337. Skeleton of the breast-fin of an early Selachius (Acanthias). The radii of the median fin-border (B) have disappeared for the most part; a few only (R) are left. R, R, radii of the lateral fin-border, mt metapterygium, ms mesopterygium, p propterygium. (From Gegenbaur.)

FIGURE 2.338. Skeleton of the breast-fin of a young Selachius. The radii of the median fin-border have wholly disappeared. The shaded part on the right is the section that persists in the five-fingered hand of the higher Vertebrates. (b the three basal pieces of the fin: mt metapterygium, rudiment of the humerus, ms mesopterygium, p propterygium.) (From Gegenbaur.))

The bony skull (cranium), the head-part of the secondary axial skeleton, develops in just the same way as the vertebral column. The skull forms a bony envelope for the brain, just as the vertebral canal does for the spinal cord; and as the brain is only a peculiarly differentiated part of the head, while the spinal cord represents the longer trunk-section of the originally homogeneous medullary tube, we shall expect to find that the osseous coat of the one is a special modification of the osseous envelope of the other. When we examine the adult human skull in itself (Figure 2.332), it is difficult to conceive how it can be merely the modified fore part of the vertebral column. It is an elaborate and extensive bony structure, composed of no less than twenty bones of different shapes and sizes. Seven of them form the spacious shell that surrounds the brain, in which we distinguish the solid ventral base below and the curved dorsal vault above. The other thirteen bones form the facial skull, which is especially the bony envelope of the higher sense-organs, and at the same time encloses the entrance of the alimentary canal. The lower jaw is articulated at the base of the skull (usually regarded as the XXI cranial bone). Behind the lower jaw we find the hyoid bone at the root of the tongue, also formed from the gill-arches, and a part of the lower arches that have developed as “head-ribs” from the ventral side of the base of the cranium.

Although the fully-developed skull of the higher Vertebrates, with its peculiar shape, its enormous size, and its complex composition, seems to have nothing in common with the ordinary vertebrae, nevertheless even the older comparative anatomists came to recognise at the end of the eighteenth century that it is really nothing else originally than a series of modified vertebrae. When Goethe in 1790 “picked up the skull of a slain victim from the sand of the Jewish cemetery at Venice, he noticed at once that the bones of the face also could be traced to vertebrae (like the three hindmost cranial vertebrae).” And when Oken (without knowing anything of Goethe’s discovery) found at Ilenstein, “a fine bleached skull of a hind, the thought flashed across him like lightning: ‘It is a vertebral column.’”

(FIGURE 2.339. Skeleton of the fore leg of an amphibian. h upper-arm (humerus), ru lower arm (r radius, u ulna), rcicu apostrophe, wrist-bones of first series (r radiale, i intermedium, c centrale, u apostrophe ulnare). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 wrist-bones of the second series. (From Gegenbaur.)

FIGURE 2.340. Skeleton of gorilla’s hand. (From Huxley.)

FIGURE 2.341. Skeleton of human hand, back. (From Meyer.))

This famous vertebral theory of the skull has interested the most distinguished zoologists for more than a century: the chief representatives of comparative anatomy have devoted their highest powers to the solution of the problem, and the interest has spread far beyond their circle. But it was not until 1872 that it was happily solved, after seven years’ labour, by the comparative anatomist who surpassed all other experts of this science in the second half of the nineteenth century by the richness of his empirical knowledge and the acuteness and depth of his philosophic speculations. Carl Gegenbaur has shown, in his classic Studies of the Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates (third section), that we find the most solid foundation for the vertebral theory of the skull in the head-skeleton of the Selachii. Earlier anatomists had wrongly started from the mammal skull, and had compared the several bones that compose it with the several parts of the vertebra (Figure 2.333) they thought they could prove in this way that the fully-formed mammal skull was made of from three to six vertebrae.

The older theory was refuted by simple and obvious facts, which were first pointed out by Huxley. Nevertheless, the fundamental idea of it—the belief that the skull is formed from the head-part of the perichordal axial skeleton, just as the brain is from the simple medullary tube, by differentiation and modification—remained. The work now was to discover the proper way of supplying this philosophic theory with an empirical foundation, and it was reserved for Gegenbaur to achieve this. He first opened out the phylogenetic path which here, as in all morphological questions, leads most confidently to the goal. He showed that the primitive fishes (Figures 2.249 to 2.251), the ancestors of all the Gnathostomes, still preserve permanently in the form of their skull the structure out of which the transformed skull of the higher Vertebrates, including man, has been evolved. He further showed that the branchial arches of the Selachii prove that their skull originally consisted of a large number of (at least nine or ten) provertebrae, and that the cerebral nerves that proceed from the base of the brain entirely confirm this. These cerebral nerves are (with the exception of the first and second pair, the olfactory and optic nerves) merely modifications of spinal nerves, and are essentially similar to them in their peripheral expansion. The comparative anatomy of these cerebral nerves, their origin and their expansion, furnishes one of the strongest arguments for the new vertebral theory of the skull.

(FIGURE 2.342. Skeleton of the hand or fore foot of six mammals. I man, II dog, III pig, IV ox, V tapir, VI horse. r radius, u ulna, a scaphoideum, b lunare, a triquetrum, d trapezium, e trapezoid, f capitatum, g hamatum, p pisiforme. 1 thumb, 2 index finger, 3 middle finger, 4 ring finger, 5 little finger. (From Gegenbaur.))

We have not space here to go into the details of Gegenbaur’s theory of the skull. I must be content to refer the reader to the great work I have mentioned, in which it is thoroughly established from the empirico-philosophical point of view. He has also given a comprehensive and up-to-date treatment of the subject in his Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates (1898). Gegenbaur indicates as original “cranial ribs,” or “lower arches of the cranial vertebrae,” at each side of the head of the Selachii (Figure 2.334), the following pairs of arches: I and II, two lip-cartilages, the anterior (a) of which is composed of an upper piece only, the posterior (bc) from an upper and lower piece; III, the maxillary arches, also consisting of two pieces on each side—the primitive upper jaw (os palatoquadratum, o) and the primitive lower jaw (u); IV, the hyaloid bone (II); finally, V to X, six branchial arches in the narrower sense (III to VIII). From the anatomic features of these nine to ten cranial ribs or “lower vertebral arches” and the cranial nerves that spread over them, it is clear that the apparently simple cartilaginous primitive skull of the Selachii was originally formed from so many (at least nine) somites or provertebrae. The blending of these primitive segments into a single capsule is, however, so ancient that, in virtue of the law of curtailed heredity, the original division seems to have disappeared; in the embryonic development it is very difficult to detect it in isolated traces, and in some respects quite