An Introductory Course of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Henry P. Talbot (good short books .TXT) 📖

lower the level of the eyes until the edge of the paper at the back of the burette is just hidden from the eye by that in front (Note 2). Note the position of the lowest point of the curve of the meniscus, estimating the tenths of the small divisions, thus reading its position to hundredths of a cubic centimeter.

[Note 1: The ends of the colored paper used as an aid to accurate readings may be fastened together by means of a gummed label. The paper may then remain on the burette and be ready for immediate use by sliding it up or down, as required.]

[Note 2: To obtain an accurate reading the eye must be very nearly on a level with the meniscus. This is secured by the use of the paper as described. The student should observe by trial how a reading is affected when the meniscus is viewed from above or below.

The eye soon becomes accustomed to estimating the tenths of the divisions. If the paper is held as directed, two divisions below the meniscus, one whole division is visible to correct the judgment. It is not well to attempt to bring the meniscus exactly to a division mark on the burette. Such readings are usually less accurate than those in which the tenths of a division are estimated.]

CALIBRATION OF GLASS MEASURING DEVICES

If accuracy of results is to be attained, the correctness of all measuring instruments must be tested. None of the apparatus offered for sale can be implicitly relied upon except those more expensive instruments which are accompanied by a certificate from the !National Bureau of Standards! at Washington, or other equally authentic source.

The bore of burettes is subject to accidental variations, and since the graduations are applied by machine without regard to such variations of bore, local errors result.

The process of testing these instruments is called !calibration!. It is usually accomplished by comparing the actual weight of water contained in the instrument with its apparent volume.

There is, unfortunately, no uniform standard of volume which has been adopted for general use in all laboratories. It has been variously proposed to consider the volume of 1000 grams of water at 4°, 15.5°, 16°, 17.5°, and even 20°C., as a liter for practical purposes, and to consider the cubic centimeter to be one one-thousandth of that volume. The true liter is the volume of 1000 grams of water at 4°C.; but this is obviously a lower temperature than that commonly found in laboratories, and involves the constant use of corrections if taken as a laboratory standard. Many laboratories use 15.5°C. (60° F.) as the working standard. It is plain that any temperature which is deemed most convenient might be chosen for a particular laboratory, but it cannot be too strongly emphasized that all measuring instruments, including burettes, pipettes, and flasks, should be calibrated at that temperature in order that the contents of each burette, pipette, etc., shall be comparable with that of every other instrument, thus permitting general interchange and substitution. For example, it is obvious that if it is desired to remove exactly 50 cc. from a solution which has been diluted to 500 cc. in a graduated flask, the 50 cc. flask or pipette used to remove the fractional portion must give a correct reading at the same temperature as the 500 cc. flask. Similarly, a burette used for the titration of the 50 cc. of solution removed should be calibrated under the same conditions as the measuring flasks or pipettes employed with it.

The student should also keep constantly in mind the fact that all volumetric operations, to be exact, should be carried out as nearly at a constant temperature as is practicable. The spot selected for such work should therefore be subject to a minimum of temperature variations, and should have as nearly the average temperature of the laboratory as is possible. In all work, whether of calibration, standardization, or analysis, the temperature of the liquids employed must be taken into account, and if the temperature of these liquids varies more than 3° or 4° from the standard temperature chosen for the laboratory, corrections must be applied for errors due to expansion or contraction, since volumes of a liquid measured at different times are comparable only under like conditions as to temperature. Data to be used for this purpose are given in the Appendix. Neglect of this correction is frequently an avoidable source of error and annoyance in otherwise excellent work. The temperature of all solutions at the time of standardization should be recorded to facilitate the application of temperature corrections, if such are necessary at any later time.

CALIBRATION OF THE BURETTES

Two burettes, one at least of which should have a glass stopper, are required throughout the volumetric work. Both burettes should be calibrated by the student to whom they are assigned.

PROCEDURE.—Weigh a 50 cc., flat-bottomed flask (preferably a light-weight flask), which must be dry on the outside, to the nearest centigram. Record the weight in the notebook. (See Appendix for suggestions as to records.) Place the flask under the burette and draw out into it about 10 cc. of water, removing any drop on the tip by touching it against the inside of the neck of the flask. Do not attempt to stop exactly at the 10 cc. mark, but do not vary more than 0.1 cc. from it. Note the time, and at the expiration of three minutes (or longer) read the burette accurately, and record the reading in the notebook (Note 1). Meanwhile weigh the flask and water to centigrams and record its weight (Note 2). Draw off the liquid from 10 cc. to about 20 cc. into the same flask without emptying it; weigh, and at the expiration of three minutes take the reading, and so on throughout the length of the burette. When it is completed, refill the burette and check the first calibration.

The differences in readings represent the apparent volumes, the differences in weights the true volumes. For example, if an apparent volume of 10.05 cc. is found to weigh 10.03 grams, it may be assumed with sufficient accuracy that the error in that 10 cc. amounts to -0.02 cc., or -0.002 for each cubic centimeter (Note 3).

In the calculation of corrections the temperature of the water must be taken into account, if this varies more than 4°C. from the laboratory standard temperature, consulting the table of densities of water in the Appendix.

From the final data, plot the corrections to be applied so that they may be easily read for each cubic centimeter throughout the burette. The total correction at each 10 cc. may also be written on the burette with a diamond, or etching ink, for permanence of record.

[Note 1: A small quantity of liquid at first adheres to the side of even a clean burette. This slowly unites with the main body of liquid, but requires an appreciable time. Three minutes is a sufficient interval, but not too long, and should be adopted in every instance throughout the whole volumetric practice before final readings are recorded.]

[Note 2: A comparatively rough balance, capable of weighing to centigrams, is sufficiently accurate for use in calibrations, for a moment's reflection will show that it would be useless to weigh the water with an accuracy greater than that of the readings taken on the burette. The latter cannot exceed 0.01 cc. in accuracy, which corresponds to 0.01 gram.

The student should clearly understand that !all other weighings!, except those for calibration, should be made accurately to 0.0001 gram, unless special directions are given to the contrary.

Corrections for temperature variations of less than 4°C. are negligible, as they amount to less than 0.01 gram for each 10 grams of water withdrawn.]

[Note 3: Should the error discovered in any interval of 10 cc. on the burette exceed 0.10 cc., it is advisable to weigh small portions (even 1 cc.) to locate the position of the variation of bore in the tube rather than to distribute the correction uniformly over the corresponding 10 cc. The latter is the usual course for small corrections, and it is convenient to calculate the correction corresponding to each cubic centimeter and to record it in the form of a table or calibration card, or to plot a curve representing the values.

Burettes may also be calibrated by drawing off the liquid in successive portions through a 5 cc. pipette which has been accurately calibrated, as a substitute for weighing. If many burettes are to be tested, this is a more rapid method.]

PIPETTES

A !pipette! may consist of a narrow tube, in the middle of which is blown a bulb of a capacity a little less than that which it is desired to measure by the pipette; or it may be a miniature burette, without the stopcock or rubber tip at the lower extremity. In either case, the flow of liquid is regulated by the pressure of the finger on the top, which governs the admission of the air.

Pipettes are usually already graduated when purchased, but they require calibration for accurate work.

CALIBRATION OF PIPETTES

PROCEDURE.—Clean the pipette. Draw distilled water into it by sucking at the upper end until the water is well above the graduation mark. Quickly place the forefinger over the top of the tube, thus preventing the entrance of air and holding the water in the pipette. Cautiously admit a little air by releasing the pressure of the finger, and allow the level of the water to fall until the lowest point of the meniscus is level with the graduation. Hold the water at that point by pressure of the finger and then allow the water to run out from the pipette into a small tared, or weighed, beaker or flask. After a definite time interval, usually two to three minutes, touch the end of the pipette against the side of the beaker or flask to remove any liquid adhering to it (Note 1). The increase in weight of the flask in grams represents the volume of the water in cubic centimeters delivered by the pipette. Calculate the necessary correction.

[Note 1: A definite interval must be allowed for draining, and a definite practice adopted with respect to the removal of the liquid which collects at the end of the tube, if the pipette is designed to deliver a specific volume when emptied. This liquid may be removed at the end of a definite interval either by touching the side of the vessel or by gently blowing out the last drops. Either practice, when adopted, must be uniformly adhered to.]

FLASKS

!Graduated or measuring flasks! are similar to the ordinary flat-bottomed flasks, but are provided with long, narrow necks in order that slight variations in the position of the meniscus with respect to the graduation shall represent a minimum volume of liquid. The flasks must be of such a capacity that, when filled with the specified volume, the liquid rises well into the neck.

GRADUATION OF FLASKS

It is a general custom to purchase the flasks ungraduated and to graduate them for use under standard conditions selected for the laboratory in question. They may be graduated for "contents" or "delivery." When graduated for "contents" they contain a specified volume when filled to the graduation at a specified temperature, and require to be washed out in order to remove all of the solution from the flask. Flasks graduated for "delivery" will deliver the specified volume of a liquid without rinsing. A flask may, of course, be graduated for both contents and delivery by placing two graduation marks upon it.

PROCEDURE.—To calibrate a flask for !contents!, proceed as follows: Clean the flask, using a chromic acid solution, and dry it carefully outside and inside. Tare it accurately; pour water into the flask until the weight of the latter counterbalances weights on the opposite pan which equal in grams the number of cubic centimeters of water which the flask is to contain. Remove any excess of water with the aid of filter paper (Note 1). Take the flask from the balance, stopper it, place it in a bath at the desired temperature, usually 15.5° or 17.5°C., and after an hour mark on the neck with a diamond the location of the lowest point of the meniscus (Note 2). The mark may be etched upon the flask by hydrofluoric acid, or by the use of an etching ink now commonly sold on the market.

To graduate a flask which is designed to !deliver! a specified volume, proceed as follows: Clean the flask as usual and wipe all moisture from the outside. Fill it with distilled water. Pour out the water and allow the water to drain from the flask for three minutes. Counterbalance the flask with weights to the nearest centigram. Add weights corresponding