The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species by Charles Robert Darwin (top fiction books of all time txt) 📖

membranous expansions of the antheriferous stamens. It is remarkable that there is an open passage from the enlarged funnel-shaped extremity to within the ovarium; this was evident, as slight pressure caused a bubble of air, which had been drawn in by some accident, to travel freely from one end to the other: a similar passage was observed by Michalet in V. alba. The pistil therefore differs considerably from that of the perfect flower; for in the latter it is much longer, and straight with the exception of the rectangularly bent stigma; nor is it perforated by an open passage.
The ordinary or perfect flowers have been said by some authors never to produce capsules; but this is an error, though only a small proportion of them do so. This appears to depend in some cases on their anthers not containing even a trace of pollen, but more generally on bees not visiting the flowers. I twice covered with a net a group of flowers, and marked with threads twelve of them which had not as yet expanded. This precaution is necessary, for though as a general rule the perfect flowers appear considerably before the cleistogamic ones, yet occasionally some of the latter are produced early in the season, and their capsules might readily be mistaken for those produced by the perfect flowers. Not one of the twelve marked perfect flowers yielded a capsule, whilst others under the net which had been artificially fertilised produced five capsules; and these contained exactly the same average number of seeds as some capsules from flowers outside the net which had been fertilised by bees. I have repeatedly seen Bombus hortorum, lapidarius, and a third species, as well as hive-bees, sucking the flowers of this violet: I marked six which were thus visited, and four of them produced fine capsules; the two others were gnawed off by some animal. I watched Bombus hortorum for some time, and whenever it came to a flower which did not stand in a convenient position to be sucked, it bit a hole through the spur-like nectary. Such ill-placed flowers would not yield any seed or leave descendants; and the plants bearing them would thus tend to be eliminated through natural selection.
The seeds produced by the cleistogamic and perfect flowers do not differ in appearance or number. On two occasions I fertilised several perfect flowers with pollen from other individuals, and afterwards marked some cleistogamic flowers on the same plants; and the result was that 14 capsules produced by the perfect flowers contained on an average 9.85 seeds; and 17 capsules from the cleistogamic ones contained 9.64 seeds,--an amount of difference of no significance. It is remarkable how much more quickly the capsules from the cleistogamic flowers are developed than those from the perfect ones; for instance, several perfect flowers were cross-fertilised on April 14th, 1863, and a month afterwards (May 15th) eight young cleistogamic flowers were marked with threads; and when the two sets of capsules thus produced were compared on June 3rd, there was scarcely any difference between them in size.
Viola odorata (WHITE-FLOWERED, SINGLE, CULTIVATED VARIETY).
The petals are represented by mere scales as in the last species; but differently from in the last, all five stamens are provided with diminutive anthers. Small bundles of pollen-tubes were traced from the five anthers into the somewhat distant stigma. The capsules produced by these flowers bury themselves in the soil, if it be loose enough, and there mature themselves. (8/6. Vaucher says 'Hist. Phys. des Plantes d'Europe' tome 3 1844 page 309, that V. hirta and collina likewise bury their capsules. See also Lecoq 'Geograph. Bot.' tome 5 1856 page 180.) Lecoq says that it is only these latter capsules which possess elastic valves; but I think this must be a misprint, as such valves would obviously be of no use to the buried capsules, but would serve to scatter the seeds of the sub-aerial ones, as in the other species of Viola. It is remarkable that this plant, according to Delpino, does not produce cleistogamic flowers in one part of Liguria, whilst the perfect flowers are there abundantly fertile (8/7. 'Sull' Opera, la Distribuzione dei Sessi nelle Piante' etc. 1867 page 30.); on the other hand, cleistogamic flowers are produced by it near Turin. Another fact is worth giving as an instance of correlated development: I found on a purple variety, after it had produced its perfect double flowers, and whilst the white single variety was bearing its cleistogamic flowers, many bud-like bodies which from their position on the plant were certainly of a cleistogamic nature. They consisted, as could be seen on bisecting them, of a dense mass of minute scales closely folded over one another, exactly like a cabbage-head in miniature. I could not detect any stamens, and in the place of the ovarium there was a little central column. The doubleness of the perfect flowers had thus spread to the cleistogamic ones, which therefore were rendered quite sterile.
Viola hirta.
The five stamens of the cleistogamic flowers are provided, as in the last case, with small anthers, from all of which pollen-tubes proceed to the stigma. The petals are not quite so much reduced as in V. canina, and the short pistil instead of being hooked is merely bent into a rectangle. Of several perfect flowers which I saw visited by hive-and humble-bees, six were marked, but they produced only two capsules, some of the others having been accidentally injured. M. Monnier was therefore mistaken in this case as in that of V. odorata, in supposing that the perfect flowers always withered away and aborted. He states that the peduncles of the cleistogamic flowers curve downwards and bury the ovaries beneath the soil. (8/8. These statements are taken from Professor Oliver's excellent article in the 'Natural History Review' July 1862 page 238. With respect to the supposed sterility of the perfect flowers in this genus see also Timbal-Lagrave 'Botanische Zeitung' 1854 page 772.) I may here add that Fritz Muller, as I hear from his brother, has found in the highlands of Southern Brazil a white-flowered species of violet which bears subterranean cleistogamic flowers.
Viola nana.
Mr. Scott sent me seeds of this Indian species from the Sikkim Terai, from which I raised many plants, and from these other seedlings during several successive generations. They produced an abundance of cleistogamic flowers during the whole of each summer, but never a perfect one. When Mr. Scott wrote to me his plants in Calcutta were behaving similarly, though his collector saw the species in flower in its native site. This case is valuable as showing that we ought not to infer, as has sometimes been done, that a species does not bear perfect flowers when growing naturally, because it produces only cleistogamic flowers under culture. The calyx of these flowers is sometimes formed of only three sepals; two being actually suppressed and not merely coherent with the others; this occurred with five out of thirty flowers which were examined for this purpose. The petals are represented by extremely minute scales. Of the stamens, two bear anthers which are in the same state as in the previous species, but, as far as I could judge, each of the two cells contained only from 20 to 25 delicate transparent pollen-grains. These emitted their tubes in the usual manner. The three other stamens bore very minute rudimentary anthers, one of which was generally larger than the other two, but none of them contained any pollen. In one instance, however, a single cell of the larger rudimentary anther included a little pollen. The style consists of a short flattened tube, somewhat expanded at its upper end, and this forms an open channel leading into the ovarium, as described under V. canina. It is slightly bent towards the two fertile anthers.
Viola Roxburghiana.
This species bore in my hothouse during two years a multitude of cleistogamic flowers, which resembled in all respects those of the last species; but no perfect ones were produced. Mr. Scott informs me that in India it bears perfect flowers only during the cold season, and that these are quite fertile. During the hot, and more especially during the rainy season, it bears an abundance of cleistogamic flowers.
Many other species, besides the five now described, produce cleistogamic flowers; this is the case, according to D. Muller, Michalet, Von Mohl, and Hermann Muller, with V. elatior, lancifolia, sylvatica, palustris, mirabilis, bicolor, ionodium, and biflora. But V. tricolor does not produce them.
Michalet asserts that V. palustris produces near Paris only perfect flowers, which are quite fertile; but that when the plant grows on mountains cleistogamic flowers are produced; and so it is with V. biflora. The same author states that he has seen in the case of V. alba flowers intermediate in structure between the perfect and cleistogamic ones. According to M. Boisduval, an Italian species, V. Ruppii, never bears in France "des fleurs bien apparentes, ce qui ne l'empeche pas de fructifier."
It is interesting to observe the gradation in the abortion of the parts in the cleistogamic flowers of the several foregoing species. It appears from the statements by D. Muller and Von Mohl that in V. mirabilis the calyx does not remain quite closed; all five stamens are provided with anthers, and some pollen-grains probably fall out of the cells on the stigma, instead of protruding their tubes whilst still enclosed, as in the other species. In V. hirta all five stamens are likewise antheriferous; the petals are not so much reduced and the pistil not so much modified as in the following species. In V. nana and elatior only two of the stamens properly bear anthers, but sometimes one or even two of the others are thus provided. Lastly, in V. canina never more than two of the stamens, as far as I have seen, bear anthers; the petals are much more reduced than in V. hirta, and according to D. Muller are sometimes quite absent.
Oxalis acetosella.
The existence of cleistogamic flowers on this plant was discovered by Michalet. (8/9. 'Bulletin Soc. Bot. de France' tome 7 1860 page 465.) They have been fully described by Von Mohl, and I can add hardly anything to his description. In my specimens the anthers of the five longer stamens were nearly on a level with the stigmas; whilst the smaller and less plainly bilobed anthers of the five shorter stamens stood considerably below the stigmas, so that their tubes had to travel some way upwards. According to Michalet these latter anthers are sometimes quite aborted. In one case the tubes, which ended in excessively fine points, were seen by me stretching upwards from the lower anthers towards the stigmas, which they had not as yet reached. My plants grew in pots, and long after the perfect flowers had withered they produced not only cleistogamic but a few minute open flowers, which were in an intermediate condition between the two kinds. In one of these the pollen-tubes from the lower anthers had reached the stigmas, though the flower was open. The footstalks of the cleistogamic flowers are much shorter than those of the perfect flowers, and are so much bowed downwards that they tend, according to Von Mohl, to bury themselves in the moss and dead leaves on the ground. Michalet also says that they are often hypogean. In order to ascertain the number of seeds produced by these flowers, I marked eight of them; two failed, one cast its seed abroad, and the remaining five contained on an average 10.0 seeds per capsule. This is rather above the average 9.2, which eleven capsules from perfect flowers fertilised with their own pollen yielded, and considerably above the average 7.9, from the capsules of perfect flowers fertilised with pollen from another plant; but this latter result must, I think, have been accidental.
Hildebrand, whilst searching various Herbaria, observed that many other species of Oxalis besides O.