An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best beach reads .txt) π
- Author: William McPherson
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Preparation. Hydrogen dioxide cannot be prepared cheaply by the direct union of hydrogen and oxygen, and indirect methods must therefore be used. It is commonly prepared by the action of a solution of sulphuric acid on barium dioxide. The change which takes place may be indicated as follows:
In other words, the barium and hydrogen in the two compounds exchange places. By this method a dilute solution of the dioxide in water is obtained. It is possible to separate the dioxide from the water by fractional distillation. This is attended with great difficulties, however, since the pure dioxide is explosive. The distillation is carried on under diminished pressure so as to lower the boiling points as much as possible; otherwise the high temperature would decompose the dioxide.
Properties. Pure hydrogen dioxide is a colorless sirupy liquid having a density of 1.49. Its most characteristic property is the ease with which it decomposes into water and oxygen. One part by weight of hydrogen is capable of holding firmly only 7.94 parts of oxygen. The additional 7.94 parts of oxygen present in hydrogen dioxide are therefore easily evolved, the compound breaking down into water and oxygen. This decomposition is attended by the generation of considerable heat. In dilute solution hydrogen dioxide is fairly stable, although such a solution should be kept in a dark, cool place, since both heat and light aid in the decomposition of the dioxide.
Uses. Solutions of hydrogen dioxide are used largely as oxidizing agents. The solution sold by druggists contains 3% of the dioxide and is used in medicine as an antiseptic. Its use as an antiseptic depends upon its oxidizing properties.
EXERCISES1. Why does the chemist use distilled water in making solutions, rather than filtered water?
2. How could you determine the total amount of solid matter dissolved in a sample of water?
3. How could you determine whether a given sample of water is distilled water?
4. How could the presence of air dissolved in water be detected?
5. How could the amount of water in a food such as bread or potato be determined?
6. Would ice frozen from impure water necessarily be free from disease germs?
7. Suppose that the maximum density of water were at 0Β° in place of 4Β°; what effect would this have on the formation of ice on bodies of water?
8. Is it possible for a substance to contain both mechanically inclosed water and water of crystallization?
9. If steam is heated to 2000Β° and again cooled, has any chemical change taken place in the steam?
10. Why is cold water passed into C instead of D (Fig. 24)?
11. Mention at least two advantages that a metal condenser has over a glass condenser.
12. Draw a diagram of the apparatus used in your laboratory for supplying distilled water.
13. 20 cc. of hydrogen and 7 cc. of oxygen are placed in a eudiometer and the mixture exploded. (a) How many cubic centimeters of aqueous vapor are formed? (b) What gas and how much of it remains in excess?
14. (a) What weight of water can be formed by the combustion of 100 L of hydrogen, measured under standard conditions? (b)What volume of oxygen would be required in (a)? (c)What weight of potassium chlorate is necessary to prepare this amount of oxygen?
15. What weight of oxygen is present in 1 kg. of the ordinary hydrogen dioxide solution? In the decomposition of this weight of the dioxide into water and oxygen, what volume of oxygen (measured under standard conditions) is evolved?
CHAPTER V THE ATOMIC THEORYThree fundamental laws of matter. Before we can gain any very definite idea in regard to the structure of matter, and the way in which different kinds of substances act chemically upon each other, it is necessary to have clearly in view three fundamental laws of matter. These laws have been established by experiment, and any conception which may be formed concerning matter must therefore be in harmony with them. The laws are as follows:
Law of conservation of matter. This law has already been touched upon in the introductory chapter, and needs no further discussion. It will be recalled that it may be stated thus: Matter can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be changed from one form into another.
Law of definite composition. In the earlier days of chemistry there was much discussion as to whether the composition of a given compound is always precisely the same or whether it is subject to some variation. Two Frenchmen, Berthollet and Proust, were the leaders in this discussion, and a great deal of most useful experimenting was done to decide the question. Their experiments, as well as all succeeding ones, have shown that the composition of a pure chemical compound is always exactly the same. Water obtained by melting pure ice, condensing steam, burning hydrogen in oxygen, has always 11.18% hydrogen and 88.82% oxygen in it. Red oxide of mercury, from whatever source it is obtained, contains 92.6% mercury and 7.4% oxygen. This truth is known as the law of definite composition, and may be stated thus: The composition of a chemical compound never varies.
Law of multiple proportion. It has already been noted, however, that hydrogen and oxygen combine in two different ratios to form water and hydrogen dioxide respectively. It will be observed that this fact does not contradict the law of definite composition, for entirely different substances are formed. These compounds differ from each other in composition, but the composition of each one is always constant. This ability of two elements to unite in more than one ratio is very frequently observed. Carbon and oxygen combine in two different ratios; nitrogen and oxygen combine to form as many as five distinct compounds, each with its own precise composition.
In the first decade of the last century John Dalton, an English school-teacher and philosopher, endeavored to find some rule which holds between the ratios in which two given substances combine. His studies brought to light a very simple relation, which the following examples will make clear. In water the hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the ratio of 1 part by weight of hydrogen to 7.94 parts by weight of oxygen. In hydrogen dioxide the 1 part by weight of hydrogen is combined with 15.88 parts by weight of oxygen. The ratio between the amounts of oxygen which combine with the same amount of hydrogen to form water and hydrogen dioxide respectively is therefore 7.94: 15.88, or 1: 2.
Developed the atomic theory; made many studies on the properties and the composition of gases. His book entitled "A New System of Chemical Philosophy" had a large influence on the development of chemistry
Similarly, the element iron combines with oxygen to form two oxides, one of which is black and the other red. By analysis it has been shown that the former contains 1 part by weight of iron combined with 0.286 parts by weight of oxygen, while the latter contains 1 part by weight of iron combined with 0.429 parts by weight of oxygen. Here again we find that the amounts of oxygen which combine with the same fixed amount of iron to form the two compounds are in the ratio of small whole numbers, viz., 2:3.
Many other examples of this simple relation might be given, since it has been found to hold true in all cases where more than one compound is, formed from the same elements. Dalton's law of multiple proportion states these facts as follows: When any two elements, A and B, combine to form more than one compound, the amounts of B which unite with any fixed amount of A bear the ratio of small whole numbers to each other.
Hypothesis necessary to explain the laws of matter. These three generalizations are called laws, because they express in concise language truths which are found by careful experiment to hold good in all cases. They do not offer any explanation of the facts, but merely state them. The human mind, however, does not rest content with the mere bare facts, but seeks ever to learn the explanation of the facts. A suggestion which is offered to explain such a set of facts is called an hypothesis. The suggestion which Dalton offered to explain the three laws of matter, called the atomic hypothesis, was prompted by his view of the constitution of matter, and it involves three distinct assumptions in regard to the nature of matter and chemical action. Dalton could not prove these assumptions to be true, but he saw that if they were true the laws of matter become very easy to understand.
Dalton's atomic hypothesis. The three assumptions which Dalton made in regard to the nature of matter, and which together constitute the atomic hypothesis, are these:
1. All elements are made up of minute, independent particles which Dalton designated as atoms.
2. All atoms of the same element have equal masses; those of different elements have different masses; in any change to which an atom is subjected its mass does not change.
3. When two or more elements unite to form a compound, the action consists in the union of a definite small number of atoms of each element to form a small particle of the compound. The smallest particles of a given compound are therefore exactly alike in the number and kinds of atoms which they contain, and larger masses of the substances are simply aggregations of these least particles.
Molecules and atoms. Dalton applied the name atom not only to the minute particles of the elements but also to the least particles of compounds. Later Avogadro, an Italian scientist, pointed out the fact that the two are different, since the smallest particle of an element is a unit, while that of a compound must have at least two units in it. He suggested the name molecule for the least particle of a compound which can exist, retaining the name atom for the smallest particle of an element. In accordance with this distinction, we may define the atom and the molecule as follows: An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist. A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound which can exist. It will be shown in a subsequent chapter that sometimes two or more atoms of the same element unite with each other to form molecules of the element. While the term atom, therefore, is applicable only to elements, the term molecule is applicable both to elements and compounds.
The atomic hypothesis and the laws of matter. Supposing the atomic hypothesis to be true, let us now see if it is in harmony with the laws of matter.
1. The atomic hypothesis and the law of conservation of matter. It is evident that if the atoms never change their masses in any change which they undergo, the total quantity of matter can never change and the law of conservation of matter must follow.
2. The atomic hypothesis and the law of definite composition. According to the third supposition, when iron combines with sulphur the union is between definite numbers
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