Great Astronomers by Robert Stawell Ball (best ereader for students .txt) 📖
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tried the same experiment with one of the red rays from the
opposite end of the coloured band. He allowed it to pass through
the same aperture in the screen, and he tested the amount by
which the second prism was capable of producing deflection.
He thus found, as he had expected to find, that the second prism
was more efficacious in bending the violet rays than in bending
the red rays. Thus he confirmed the fact that the various hues
of the rainbow were each bent by a prism to a different extent,
violet being acted upon the most, and red the least.
[PLATE: ISAAC NEWTON.]
Not only did Newton decompose a white beam into its constituent
colours, but conversely by interposing a second prism with its
angle turned upwards, he reunited the different colours, and thus
reproduced the original beam of white light. In several other
ways also he illustrated his famous proposition, which then seemed
so startling, that white light was the result of a mixture of all
hues of the rainbow. By combining painters’ colours in the right
proportion he did not indeed succeed in producing a mixture which
would ordinarily be called white, but he obtained a grey pigment.
Some of this he put on the floor of his room for comparison with a
piece of white paper. He allowed a beam of bright sunlight to
fall upon the paper and the mixed colours side by side, and a
friend he called in for his opinion pronounced that under these
circumstances the mixed colours looked the whiter of the two.
By repeated demonstrations Newton thus established his great
discovery of the composite character of light. He at once
perceived that his researches had an important bearing upon
the principles involved in the construction of a telescope.
Those who employed the telescope for looking at the stars,
had been long aware of the imperfections which prevented all the
various rays from being conducted to the same focus. But this
imperfection had hitherto been erroneously accounted for. It had
been supposed that the reason why success had not been attained
in the construction of a refracting telescope was due to the fact
that the object glass, made as it then was of a single piece,
had not been properly shaped. Mathematicians had abundantly
demonstrated that a single lens, if properly figured, must conduct
all rays of light to the same focus, provided all rays experienced
equal refraction in passing through the glass. Until Newton’s
discovery of the composition of white light, it had been taken for
granted that the several rays in a white beam were equally
refrangible. No doubt if this had been the case, a perfect
telescope could have been produced by properly shaping the object
glass. But when Newton had demonstrated that light was by no
means so simple as had been supposed, it became obvious that
a satisfactory refracting telescope was an impossibility when
only a single object lens was employed, however carefully that
lens might have been wrought. Such an objective might, no doubt,
be made to conduct any one group of rays of a particular shade
to the same focus, but the rays of other colours in the beam of
white light must necessarily travel somewhat astray. In this
way Newton accounted for a great part of the difficulties which
had hitherto beset the attempts to construct a perfect refracting
telescope.
We now know how these difficulties can be, to a great extent,
overcome, by employing for the objective a composite lens made of
two pieces of glass possessing different qualities. To these
achromatic object glasses, as they are called, the great
development of astronomical knowledge, since Newton’s time, is
due. But it must be remarked that, although the theoretical
possibility of constructing an achromatic lens was investigated by
Newton, he certainly came to the conclusion that the difficulty
could not be removed by employing a composite objective, with two
different kinds of glass. In this his marvellous sagacity in the
interpretation of nature seems for once to have deserted him.
We can, however, hardly regret that Newton failed to discover
the achromatic objective, when we observe that it was in
consequence of his deeming an achromatic objective to be
impossible that he was led to the invention of the reflecting
telescope. Finding, as he believed, that the defects of the
telescope could not be remedied by any application of the
principle of refraction he was led to look in quite a different
direction for the improvement of the tool on which the advancement
of astronomy depended. The REFRACTION of light depended as he
had found, upon the colour of the light. The laws of REFLECTION
were, however, quite independent of the colour. Whether rays be
red or green, blue or yellow, they are all reflected in precisely
the same manner from a mirror. Accordingly, Newton perceived that
if he could construct a telescope the action of which depended upon
reflection, instead of upon refraction, the difficulty which had
hitherto proved an insuperable obstacle to the improvement of the
instrument would be evaded.
[PLATE: SIR ISAAC NEWTON’S LITTLE REFLECTOR.]
For this purpose Newton fashioned a concave mirror from a mixture
of copper and tin, a combination which gives a surface with almost
the lustre of silver. When the light of a star fell upon the
surface, an image of the star was produced in the focus of this
mirror, and then this image was examined by a magnifying eye-piece. Such is the principle of the famous reflecting telescope
which bears the name of Newton. The little reflector which he
constructed, represented in the adjoining figure, is still
preserved as one of the treasures of the Royal Society. The
telescope tube had the very modest dimension of one inch in
diameter. It was, however, the precursor of a whole series
of magnificent instruments, each outstripping the other in
magnitude, until at last the culminating point was attained in
1845, by the construction of Lord Rosse’s mammoth reflector
of six feet in aperture.
Newton’s discovery of the composition of light led to an
embittered controversy, which caused no little worry to the great
Philosopher. Some of those who attacked him enjoyed considerable
and, it must be admitted, even well-merited repute in the ranks of
science. They alleged, however, that the elongation of the
coloured band which Newton had noticed was due to this, to that,
or to the other—to anything, in fact, rather than to the true
cause which Newton assigned. With characteristic patience and
love of truth, Newton steadily replied to each such attack.
He showed most completely how utterly his adversaries had
misunderstood the subject, and how slight indeed was their
acquaintance with the natural phenomenon in question. In reply to
each point raised, he was ever able to cite fresh experiments and
adduce fresh illustrations, until at last his opponents retired
worsted from the combat.
It has been often a matter for surprise that Newton, throughout
his whole career, should have taken so much trouble to expose the
errors of those who attacked his views. He used even to do this
when it plainly appeared that his adversaries did not understand
the subject they were discussing. A philosopher might have said,
“I know I am right, and whether others think I am right or not may
be a matter of concern to them, but it is certainly not a matter
about which I need trouble. If after having been told the truth
they elect to remain in error, so much the worse for them; my time
can be better employed than in seeking to put such people right.”
This, however, was not Newton’s method. He spent much valuable
time in overthrowing objections which were often of a very futile
description. Indeed, he suffered a great deal of annoyance from
the persistency, and in some cases one might almost say from the
rancour, of the attacks which were made upon him. Unfortunately
for himself, he did not possess that capacity for sublime
indifference to what men may say, which is often the happy,
possession of intellects greatly inferior to his.
The subject of optics still continuing to engross Newton’s
attention, he followed up his researches into the structure of the
sunbeam by many other valuable investigations in connection with
light. Every one has noticed the beautiful colours manifested in
a soap-bubble. Here was a subject which not unnaturally attracted
the attention of one who had expounded the colours of the spectrum
with such success. He perceived that similar hues were produced
by other thin plates of transparent material besides soap-bubbles,
and his ingenuity was sufficient to devise a method by which the
thicknesses of the different films could be measured. We can
hardly, indeed, say that a like success attended his
interpretation of these phenomena to that which had been so
conspicuous in his explanation of the spectrum. It implies no
disparagement to the sublime genius of Newton to admit that the
doctrines he put forth as to the causes of the colours in the
soap-bubbles can be no longer accepted. We must remember that
Newton was a pioneer in accounting for the physical properties
of light. The facts that he established are indeed
unquestionable, but the explanations which he was led to offer
of some of them are seen to be untenable in the fuller light
of our present knowledge.
[PLATE: SIR ISAAC NEWTON’S SUN-DIAL.]
Had Newton done nothing beyond making his wonderful discoveries
in light, his fame would have gone down to posterity as one of
the greatest of Nature’s interpreters. But it was reserved for
him to accomplish other discoveries, which have pushed even his
analysis of the sunbeam into the background; it is he who has
expounded the system of the universe by the discovery of the
law of universal gravitation.
The age had indeed become ripe for the advent of the genius of
Newton. Kepler had discovered with marvellous penetration the
laws which govern the movements of the planets around the sun, and
in various directions it had been more or less vaguely felt that
the explanation of Kepler’s laws, as well as of many other
phenomena, must be sought for in connection with the attractive
power of matter. But the mathematical analysis which alone could
deal with this subject was wanting; it had to be created by
Newton.
At Woolsthorpe, in the year 1666, Newton’s attention appears to
have been concentrated upon the subject of gravitation.
Whatever may be the extent to which we accept the more or less
mythical story as to how the fall of an apple first directed the
attention of the philosopher to the fact that gravitation must
extend through space, it seems, at all events, certain that this
is an excellent illustration of the line of reasoning which he
followed. He argued in this way. The earth attracts the apple;
it would do so, no matter how high might be the tree from which
that apple fell. It would then seem to follow that this power
which resides in the earth by which it can draw all external
bodies towards it, extends far beyond the altitude of the loftiest
tree. Indeed, we seem to find no limit to it. At the greatest
elevation that has ever been attained, the attractive power of the
earth is still exerted, and though we cannot by any actual
experiment reach an altitude more than a few miles above the
earth, yet it is certain that gravitation would extend to
elevations far greater. It is plain, thought Newton, that an
apple let fall from a point a hundred miles above this earth’s
surface, would be drawn down by the attraction, and would
continually gather fresh velocity until it reached the ground.
From a hundred miles it was natural to think of what
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