A Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene (Revised Edition) by Calvin Cutter (lightweight ebook reader txt) 📖
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488. What is formed when oxygen unites with carbon or hydrogen? 489. Give the theory for the formation of carbonic acid and watery vapor thrown out of the system. 490. Illustrate the passage of fluids through membranes, and the different affinities of gases.
491. The walls of the air-vesicles, and coats of the blood-vessels, are similar, in their mechanical arrangement, to the membranous bladder in the before described experiment. As the oxygen of the air has greater affinity for blood than for nitrogen, so it permeates the membranes that intervene between the air and blood more readily than the nitrogen. As the carbonic acid and water have a greater affinity for air than for the other elements of the blood, so they will also pass through the walls of the blood-vessels and air-cells more readily than the other elements of the dark-colored blood.
Fig. 98.
Fig. 98. 1, A bronchial tube divided into three branches. 2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 3, Branches of the pulmonary artery, that spread over the air-cells. Through the pulmonary artery the dark, impure blood is carried to the air-cells of the lungs. 4, Branches of the pulmonary vein, that commence at the minute terminations of the pulmonary artery. Through the pulmonary vein the red blood is returned to the heart.
492. As the impure blood is passing in the minute vessels over the air-cells, the oxygen passes through the thin coats of the air-cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. At the same time, the carbonic acid and water leave the blood, and pass through the coats of the blood-vessels and air-cells, and mix with the air in the cells. These are thrown out of the system every time we breathe. This interchange of products produces the change in the color of the blood.
Explain fig. 98. 492. How and where is the blood changed?
226Experiment. Fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from any animal. Tie the bladder closely, and suspend it in the air. In a few hours, the blood next to the membrane will have become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygen from the air passing through the bladder, and uniting with the blood, while the carbonic acid has escaped through the membrane.
Fig. 99.
Fig. 99. An ideal view of the pulmonary circulation. 1, 1, The right lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The right bronchial tube. 5, The left bronchial tube. 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventricle. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, The branch to the right lung. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, The left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves.
493. The presence of carbonic acid and watery vapor in the expired air, can be proved by the following experiments: 227 1st. Breathe into lime-water, and in a few minutes it will become of a milk-white color. This is owing to the carbonic acid of the breath uniting with the lime, forming the carbonate of lime. 2d. Breathe upon a cold, dry mirror for a few minutes, and it will be covered with moisture. This is condensed vapor from the lungs. In warm weather, this watery vapor is invisible in the expired air, but in a cold, dry morning in winter, the successive jets of vapor issuing from the mouth and nose are sufficiently obvious.
Give the experiment showing that oxygen changes the dark-colored blood to a bright red color. What is represented by fig. 99? 493. How can the presence of carbonic acid in the lungs be proved?
494. From the lungs are eliminated other impurities beside carbonic acid, the perceptible quality of which is various in different persons. The offensive breath of many persons may be caused by decayed teeth, or the particles of food that may be retained between them, but it often proceeds from the secretion, in the lungs, of certain substances which previously existed in the system.
Illustration. When spirituous liquors are taken into the stomach, they are absorbed by the veins and mixed with the dark-colored blood, in which they are carried to the lungs to be expelled from the body. This will explain the fact, which is familiar to most persons, that the odor of different substances is perceptible in the breath, or expired air, long after the mouth is free from these substances.
How the watery vapor? 494. Are there other excretions from the lungs? Give the illustration.
Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory organs be reviewed from figs. 96, 97, and 99, or from anatomical outline plates Nos. 5 and 7.
495. For man to enjoy the highest degree of health, it is necessary that the impure “venous” blood be properly changed. As this is effected in the lungs by the action of the air, it follows that this element, when breathed, should be pure, or contain twenty-one per cent. of oxygen to about seventy-nine per cent. of nitrogen.
496. The volume of air expelled from the lungs is somewhat less than that which is inspired. The amount of loss varies under different circumstances. An eightieth part of the volume taken into the lungs, or half a cubic inch, may be considered an average estimate.
497. The quality and purity of the air is affected by every respiration. 1st. The quantity of oxygen is diminished. 2d. The amount of carbonic acid is increased. 3d. A certain proportion of watery vapor is ejected from the lungs in the expired air. Of the twenty-one parts of oxygen in the inspired air, only eighteen parts are expired, while the carbonic acid and watery vapor are increased about four per cent. The quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in the expired as in the inspired air.
Observation. It is now fully ascertained that while the chemical composition of the blood is essentially changed, its 229 weight remains the same, as the carbon and hydrogen discharged are equal to the united weight of the oxygen and nitrogen absorbed.
495–546. Give the hygiene of the respiratory organs. 495. What is necessary that man enjoy the highest degree of health? 496. How does the volume Of expired air compare with that which was inspired? Does this loss vary, and what is an average estimate? 497. How is the purity of the air affected by respiration? How is the inhaled oxygen affected? What effect on the carbonic acid and watery vapor? On the nitrogen? What is said respecting the weight of the blood?
498. If one fourth part of the volume of air received by the lungs at one inspiration is decomposed at one “beat” of the heart, it might be supposed that if the expired air be again received into the lungs, one half of the oxygen would be consumed, and, in a similar ratio, if re-breathed four times, all the oxygen would be consumed. But it does not follow, if the air is thus re-breathed, that the same changes will be effected in the lungs. For air that has been inspired does not part with its remaining oxygen as freely as when it contains the proper amount of this life-giving element, and thus the changes in the impure blood are not so completely effected.
Illustration. In the process of dyeing, each successive article immersed in the dye weakens it; but it does not follow that the dye each time is affected in the same degree, or that the coloring matter by repeated immersions can be wholly extracted. The same principle applies to the exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid gas in the lungs.
499. If the inspired air is free from moisture and carbonic acid, these substances contained in the blood will be more readily imparted to it. When the air is loaded with vapor, they are removed more slowly; but if it is saturated with moisture, no vapor will escape from the blood through the agency of the lungs. This may be illustrated by the following experiment: Take two and a half pounds of water, add to it half a pound of common salt, (chloride of sodium,) and it will readily mix with the water; and to this solution add the same quantity of salt, and it will be dissolved more slowly. Again, add more salt, and it will remain undissolved, as the water has become saturated by the pound before dissolved.
498. Does air that is re-breathed freely impart its oxygen? Why? 499. What is the effect on the blood when the air is free from vapor and carbonic acid? When loaded with vapor? When saturated? How is this illustrated?
230500. The principle in this experiment is analogous to that of the union between carbonic gas and atmospheric air. Allen and Pepy showed by experiment, that air which had been once breathed, contained eight and a half per cent. of carbonic acid. They likewise showed, that no continuance of the respiration of the same air could make it take up more than ten per cent. This is the point of saturation.
Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is expelled from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in the chest a short time, and then breathe into the jar, and instantly close the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar that is under the water with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient size to cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink into it a lighted candle. The flame will be extinguished as quickly as if put in water.[15] Remove the carbonic acid by inverting the jar, and place a lighted candle in it, and the flame will be as clear as when out of the jar.
Observations. 1st. It is familiarly known that a taper will not burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable quantity, or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen. From this originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted candle into a well or pit before descending into it. If the flame is extinguished, respiration cannot there be maintained, and life would be sacrificed should a person venture in, until the noxious air is removed.
500. What did the experiments of Allen and Pepy show? How can the presence of carbonic gas in the expired air be demonstrated? State observation 1st. Observation 2d.
2d. It is the action of carbonic acid upon the respiratory 231 organs, that gives rise to a phenomenon frequently seen in mines and caves. A man may enter these subterranean rooms, and feel no inconvenience in breathing; but the dog that follows him, falls apparently dead, and soon dies if not speedily removed to pure air. This arises from the fact that this gas is heavier than air, and sinks to the bottom of the room or cave.
3d. While it is true that carbonic acid possesses properties that render it unfit to be breathed, it is, notwithstanding, productive of very agreeable
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