Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (small books to read TXT) 📖

A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an +Adjective Clause+.

Analysis.

1. They that touch pitch will be defiled.

They | will be defiled =======|===================== ` | ` ` that ` | touch | pitch ––—|––—’––- |

+Explanation+.—The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading of the lines. The pronoun that is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. That performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a modifier of they.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. They will be defiled is the independent clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. That touch pitch is a modifier of they because it limits the meaning of they; the dependent clause is connected by its subject that to they.

TO THE TEACHER.—Illustrate the connecting force of who, which, and that by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connection.

2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits.

+Explanation+.—The adjective clause does not always modify the subject.

4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like genius. 5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes. 6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed.

+Explanation+.—The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject.

7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, footnote.] which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 8. I found the place to which you referred.

I | found | place ====|================== | the ` ` you | referred ` ––|–––- ` | to ` which ` -––

9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter. 10. It was the same book that I referred to.

+Explanation+.—The phrase to that modifies referred. That connects the adjective clause. When the pronoun that connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8).

11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him.

+Explanation+.—A preposition is wanting. That = in which. (Can you find a word that would here sound better than that?)

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 14. It is to you that I speak.

+Explanation+.—Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its usual place—It is you that I speak to. That I speak to modifies the subject.

15. It was from me that he received the information.

(_Me_ must be changed to I when from is restored to its usual position.)

16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the ocean.

mountains

–––—

` ` base | is ` ––|–— ` `…..whose

+Explanation+.—The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of base.

17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting.

*

LESSON 60.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES—CONTINUED.

Analysis.

1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time you take to breathe.

+Explanation+.—The connecting pronoun that [Footnote: When whom, which, and that would, if used, be object complements, they are often omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits them.] is omitted.

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.

+Explanation+.—The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of whom. Supply him.

5. He did what was right.

He | did | x ====|====================== | ` ` what ` | was right –––|––––-

+Explanation+.—The adjective clause modifies the omitted word thing, or some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many grammarians prefer to treat what was right as a noun clause (see Lesson 71), the object of did. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by whoever, whatever, whichever.

“What was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive whose has, however, attained the full construction of a relative.”—_Prof. F. A. March_.]

6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 8. What men he had were true.

The relative pronoun what here precedes its noun like an adjective. Analyze as if arranged thus: The men what (= that or whom) he had were true.

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled.

+Explanation+.—The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (man or he) of the independent clause.

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited.

depot | is place =======|============== A | a ` where stores | ` are deposited ––-|––––––– |

+Explanation+.—The line representing where is made up of two parts. The upper part represents where as a conjunction connecting the adjective clause to place, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying are deposited. As where performs these two offices, it may be called a conjunctive adverb. By changing where to the equivalent phrase in which, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen.

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply the place before where.) 14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of the universe are conducted.

*

LESSON 61.

COMPOSITION—ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+COMMA—RULE.—The Adjective Clause, when not restrictive, is set off by the comma.+

+Explanation+.—I picked the apple that was ripe. I picked the apple, which was ripe. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits apple, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, and it was ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to and he or and it; as, I gave the letter to my friend, who will return it to you.

Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause.

Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the letter to my friend, who can be trusted.

But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the following sentences:—

John, who did not know the law, is innocent. John is innocent; he did not know the law. John is innocent because he did not know the law.

No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)]

+Caution+.—The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies.

+Direction+.—_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when needed_:—

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. I have no right to decide who am interested.

+Direction+.—_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:— Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable.

+Direction+.—_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:—

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. 3. I am thy father’s spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber.

+Direction+.—_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:—

1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster’s ear.

+Direction+.—_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:—

Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever.

When, where, and why.

+Direction+.—_Change “that which”, in the following sentences to “what”, and “what” to “that which”; “whoever” to “he who”, and “whatever” to “anything” or “everything which”; “where” and “when” to “at”, “on”, or “in which”; “wherein” to “in which”; and “whereby” to “by which”_:—

1. _That which_ is seen is temporal. 2. What God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 3. Whoever lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. Whatever we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the very spot where brave men died. 6. The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play’s the thing wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means whereby I live.

+Direction+.—_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective clauses_:—

1. A man’s heart deviseth his way. 2. Reason’s whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words—_health, peace_, and competence.

*

LESSON 62.

+Direction+.—_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson, and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:—

Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase; one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is omitted; one whose connective is an adverb.