Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (small books to read TXT) 📖

capitalization._

+Direction+.—_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_.

 

*

 

LESSON 75.

ANALYSIS.

+Direction+.—_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction in Lesson_ 73.

 

*

 

LESSON 76.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

+Introductory Hints+.—_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk made another_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, added by the conjunction and to the first, continues the line of thought begun by the first.

Man has his will, but woman has her way. Here the conjunction connects independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other.

The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them. The independent clauses, connected by or, present thoughts between which you may choose, but either, accepted, excludes the other.

The ground is wet, therefore it has rained. Here the inferred fact, the raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as cause to effect—the raining made the ground wet. It has rained, hence the ground is wet. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause—the ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the compound form—an and may be placed before therefore and hence. Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as independent.

Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it. Here the independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence—connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is common.

Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences.

 

+DEFINITION.—A Clause is a part of a sentence containing’ a subject and its predicate.+

+DEFINITION.—A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.+

+DEFINITION.—An Independent Clause is one not dependent on another clause.+

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+DEFINITION.—A Simple Sentence is a sentence that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+

+DEFINITION.—A Complex Sentence is a sentence composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.+

+DEFINITION.—A Compound Sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses.+

Analysis.

+Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought.

1. Light has spread, and bayonets think.

Light | has spread =======|============= | ‘

‘

‘ and

……. ‘ ‘

bayonets | ‘ think ===========|========== |

+Explanation+.—The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on which they stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates merely for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a compound sentence because it is made up of independent clauses.

2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. 3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them.

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast.+

4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready writing.

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+.

7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they extremely warm in summer.

(Here a choice is denied.)

9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably.

(See (16), Lesson 20.)

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+ from the other.

10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. 11. I have seen, therefore I believe.

I | have seen ===|=========== | ‘

‘

I | ‘ believe ===|=’========= |' therefore

+Explanation+.—In such constructions and may be supplied, or the adverb may be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates therefore as connective.

+Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+.

12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow. 13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of thee. 14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow.

+Explanation+.—As it were is an independent clause used parenthetically. As simply introduces it.

15. Religion—who can doubt it?—is the noblest of themes for the exercise of intellect. 16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son!

 

*

 

LESSON 77.

COMPOSITION—COMPOUND SENTENCE.

+COMMA and SEMICOLON—RULE.—_Independent Clauses_, when short and closely connected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the semicolon is used+.

+Remark+.—A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis—the marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the last three sentences in the preceding Lesson.

+Examples+.— 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. 2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last.

(The rule above is another example.)

+Direction+.—_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:—

1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with its own light and with the light reflected from the other part. Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding.] 6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error.

+Direction+.—_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the preceding Lesson_.

+Direction+.—_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:—

Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floods came. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell.

Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to all the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts.

+Example+.—Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man = Time and tide wait for no man.

+Direction+.—_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to the punctuation_:—

1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for American independence. 2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose the mind for contemplation. 3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us.

A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the other.

Example.—He is witty, but he is vulgar = He is witty but vulgar.

+Direction+.—_Contract these sentences_:—

1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the web. 2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of America? 4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly been likened to him. 5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that pleased me.

A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without materially changing the sense.

+Example+.—_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care of themselves = If you take care of the minutes, the hours will take care of themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force.)

+Direction+.—_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:—

1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music. 5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded.

+Direction+.—_Change one of the independent clauses in each of these sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a participle phrase_:—

+Model+.—The house was built upon a rock, and therefore it did not fall = The house did not fall, because it was built upon a rock = The house, being built upon a rock, did not fall.

1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us.

+Direction+.—_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose three compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_.

 

*

 

LESSON 78.

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES.

+Introductory Hints+.—_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went to Holland, to England, and to France. I came, I saw, I conquered. Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order.

Leaves fall so very quietly. They ate of the fruit from the tree in the garden. Regulus would have paused if he had been the man that he was before captivity had unstrung his sinews. Here just as the word modifier quietly is itself modified by very, and very by so; and just as fruit, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by another phrase, and the principal word of that by another: so man, in the adverb clause which modifies would have paused, is itself modified by the adjective clause that he was, and was by the adverb clause before captivity had unstrung his sinews. These three dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in the complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank.

Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it. This is a compound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes but and the complex clause