Graded Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (find a book to read .TXT) 📖

thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all doing—so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that you do indeed miss me at home.

Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and faithful.

Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything.

Much love to each of the dear ones at home.

Your affectionate son,

Henry James.

[Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.]

[Illustration of Envelope: Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Summit Co. Ohio.]

+_To the Teacher_+.—Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed. Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the word Introducing (followed by the name of the one introduced) at the lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed. The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed.

Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter.

A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.

II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.

III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case.

IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case.

V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained.

VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.

With two or more antecedents connected by and, the pronoun is plural.

With two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, the pronoun is singular.

VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.

With two or more subjects connected by and, the verb is plural.

With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, the verb is singular.

VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun.

IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.

XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.

XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.

XIV. Interjections are used independently.

+PROOF-MARKS+.

+Remark+.—The following are some of the marks used in correcting proof-sheets for the printer:—

 

[Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out.

[^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted.

[/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as corrections.

[Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period.

[tr.] Transpose.

[Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [.

[No Symbol: para] No new paragraph.

[Symbol: v’ ] This calls attention to the apostrophe.

+To the Teacher+.—We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as illustrations:—

[Illustration: Corrected letter]

 

NOTES FOR TEACHERS.

AGREEMENT.

Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that add s to denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the s is dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping s, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, s may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree.

At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms as number, person, tense, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:—

When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, s or es is added (unless the subject is I or you).

Let the pupils see that the s-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing does, not what it did; as, “The boy runs,” “The boy ran“; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, “He runs,” “I run.”

Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of is, was, and has, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change of is to are, was to were, and has to have. The forms does and do may also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:—

Is, was, has, and does are used with subjects denoting but one. Are, were, have, and do are used with subjects denoting more than one.

We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:—

Was Napoleon banished?

The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.

In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with I and you. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:—

I can be used with am, was, have, and do. You may mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as if you meant more than one.

Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as “You were,” “They were,” “We were,” “He doesn’t,” etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.

When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that was is often used incorrectly for were, and don’t for doesn’t. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils’ observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:—

1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write

1. With what kind of letter (4) each of these names begin? 2. Under this rule (1) found important exceptions. 3. The farm, with all the cattle and horses, (2) sold. 4. With what mark (4) imperative sentences end? 5. Every effort of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) trying times in every man’s life. 7. One of them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Not one in ten (7) about this. 9. Neither of you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenic exercises. 11. A cargo of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) a train of cars.

After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar.

Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, were identified is asserted of two things, and that in (3) was anticipated is asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of singular and plural may be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:—

With two or more subjects connected by and the verb agrees in the plural.

With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor the verb agrees in the singular.

The pupils may examine such sentences as—

1. Each word and gesture was suited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass rejoices after the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloud comes to the relief of the parched earth;—

and note that each, every, and no show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular.

Such sentences as—

“In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman was lost to the world”—

may be given to show that subjects connected by and may name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular.

Such examples as the following may be given and justified:—

1. Beauty and utility are combined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utility appears in every natural object. 3. Here is neither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tide wait for no man. 5. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 6. Does either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenants profit by this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly is provided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murderer was finally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murderer were finally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yacht has sailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind man was provided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging.

Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeating that, the, and a.

Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:—

1. Neither he nor I am going. (Better—He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither