Graded Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (find a book to read .TXT) 📖

John nor his sisters were there. 3. Action, and not words, is needed. 4. Bread and milk is good food. 5. The committee are unable to agree on their report. 6. The committee has made its report.

Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) “bread and milk” represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:—

1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited.

WRITING NAMES—CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.]

Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:—

Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote “The Song of Hiawatha.” John Bunyan wrote “The Pilgrim’s Progress.” The subject for composition was “A Day in the Woods.”

We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an

+Observation Lesson+.—Are city and Albany both names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written are class names? Which are individual names? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or abbreviated, by omitting all but the first, or initial, letter. Mention an abbreviation containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words.

For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:—

1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamer City of Chicago sails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was “The View from my Window.” 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans—afterward Mrs. Lewes—was the author of “The Mill on the Floss.” 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria.

The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:—

+Observation Lesson+.—Is Chicago, or city of Chicago the individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is Chicago, or City of Chicago the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named Jersey, or Jersey City? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as Michigan, or Lake Michigan? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?—in (4)? Is Irish, or Irish Sea the name of the body of water mentioned in (4)?

Notice that Spanish, in (3), and English, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual names Spain and England.

What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as uncle, captain, professor, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names.

What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?

In (8) do you find a period after Miss?—after Mrs.?

Miss is not written as an abbreviation.

What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is Old Testament the particular name of?

What do you discover in the names found in (11)?

For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.

We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing of headings, introductions, conclusions, and superscriptions will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The body of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned.

ADJECTIVES—CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.

Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer’s style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:—

Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses.

+Seeing+, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent

+Hearing+, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious

+Smelling+, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic

+Tasting+, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious

+Feeling+. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry

Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc.

Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:—

chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music

Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:—

timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous

Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as—

nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely.

We hear of nice mountains, awful pens, horrid ink, splendid pie, elegant beef, lovely cheese, etc.

Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:—

| distinction –––-+ workmanship | calculation

| stillness –––-+ chasm | rumbling

| child –––-+ features | character

| palace –––-+ victory | illumination

| manners –––-+ taste | furniture

| deeds –––-+ dreams | butchery

This work may very profitable be extended.

A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,

“A great, large, roomy, spacious hall”; “Superb, delicious, magnificent pumpkin-pie”; “A stingy, miserly, close-fisted fellow.”

The italicized words may be omitted.

Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.

Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:—

We piled with care our nightly stack Of wood against the chimney-back,— The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, And on its top the stout back-stick; The knotty fore-stick laid apart, And filled between with curious art The ragged brush; then, hovering near, We watched the first red blaze appear, Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, Until the old, rude-furnished room Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.

Whittier.—Snow-Bound.

+Observation Lesson+.—Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?

What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?

Notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjective sharp makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do.

Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each.

What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?

Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also.

ARRANGEMENT.

The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the natural order of words and phrases:—

(a) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (b) William’s sister Mary is an excellent musician. (_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (_d_) We saw it distinctly. (e) We had often been there. (f) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.

+Observation Lesson+.—The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their Natural Order.

From (a) and (b) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (b) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_), (_d_), and (e) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (a) and (f) the natural order of a phrase.

Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:—

(_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (i) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.

+Observation Lesson+.—Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word,