Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (small books to read TXT) 📖

bands or cords. The varying force with which the breath strikes them and their different tensions and lengths at different times, explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice.

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds.

But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If the breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed.

The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which represent to the eye these sounds that address the ear.

You are now prepared to understand us when we say that +vowels+ are the +letters+ that stand for the +open sounds+ of the +voice+, and that +consonants+ are the +letters+ that stand for the sounds made by the +obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+.

The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A perfect alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one.

Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways:—

1. Some of the letters are superfluous; c stands for the sound of s or of k, as in city and can; q has the sound of k, as in quit; and x that of ks, gz, or z, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon.

2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds; as, th in thine, th in thin, ng in sing, and sh in shut.

3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; e stands for two sounds, as in mete and met; i for two, as in pine and pin; o for three, as in note, not, and move; u for four, as in tube, tub, full, and fur; a for six, as in fate, fat, far, fall, fast, and fare.

W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel sound, and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i, as in now, by, boy, newly. W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word or syllable.

The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of the compounds, ou, oi, ew, and in the alphabetic i and o.

 

1. 2.

Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. b………………p d………………t g………………k ––––––-h j………………ch l–––––– m–––––– n–––––– r–––––– th……………..th (in thine) (in thin) v………………f w–––––– y–––––– z (in zone)……s z (in azure)…..sh

The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructed voice; those in column 2, except h (which represents a mere forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath.

The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of any letter in column 1, as b, g, v, and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair.

TO THE TEACHER.—Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill them on the vowels also.

In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words naming this idea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish clearly these four things.

TO THE TEACHER.—In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis on Lesson 2.

 

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LESSON 4.

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.

TO THE TEACHER.—If the pupils have been through “Graded Lessons” or its equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly.

+DEFINITION.—A Sentence is the expression of a thought in words+.

+Direction+.—_Analyze the following sentences_:—

+Model+.—Spiders spin. Why is this a sentence? Ans.—Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.—Spiders. Which word tells what is thought? Ans.—_Spin_. [Footnote: The word spiders, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; spin, used merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will please note here and elsewhere.]

1. Tides ebb. 2. Liquids flow. 3. Steam expands. 4. Carbon burns. 5. Iron melts. 6. Powder explodes. 7. Leaves tremble. 8. Worms crawl. 9. Hares leap.

In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts—the +Subject+ and the +Predicate+.

+DEFINITION.—The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought.+

+DEFINITION.—The Predicate of a sentence tells what is thought.+

+DEFINITION.—The Analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts.+

+Direction+.—_Analyze these sentences_:—

+Model+.—_Beavers build_. This is a sentence because it expresses a thought. Beavers is the subject because it names that of which something is thought; build is the predicate because it tells what is thought. [Footnote: When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of analysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here and elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition.]

1. Squirrels climb. 2. Blood circulates. 3. Muscles tire. 4. Heralds proclaim. 5. Apes chatter. 6. Branches wave. 7. Corn ripens. 8. Birds twitter. 9. Hearts throb.

+Explanation+.—Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let the first part represent the subject of a sentence; the second, the predicate.

If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence.

Love | conquers ========|============ |

You see, by looking at this figure, that Love conquers is a sentence; that love is the subject, and conquers the predicate.

Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call Diagrams.

+DEFINITION.—A Diagram is a picture of the offices and the relations of the different parts of a sentence.+

+Direction+.—_Analyze these sentences_:—

1. Frogs croak. 2. Hens sit. 3. Sheep bleat. 4. Cows low. 5. Flies buzz. 6. Sap ascends. 7. Study pays. 8. Buds swell. 9. Books aid. 10. Noise disturbs. 11. Hope strengthens. 12. Cocks crow.

 

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LESSON 5.

COMPOSITION—SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

+CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—The first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter+.

+PERIOD—RULE.—A period must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms, denies, or commands.+

+Direction+.—_Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates_:—

Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes? Who sailed, conquered, etc.?

1. –— tarnishes. 2. –— capsize. 3. –— radiates. 4. –— sentence. 5. –— careen. 6. –— sailed. 7. –— descends. 8. –— glisten. 9. –— absorb. 10. –— corrode. 11. –— conquered. 12. –— surrendered. 13. –— refines. 14. –— gurgle. 15. –— murmur.

+Direction+.—_Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects_:—

Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what?

1. Glycerine –—. 2. Yankees –—. 3. Tyrants –—. 4. Pendulums –—. 5. Caesar –—. 6. Labor –—. 7. Chalk –—. 8. Nature –—. 9. Tempests –—. 10. Seeds –—. 11. Heat –—. 12. Philosophers –—. 13. Bubbles –—. 14. Darkness –—. 15. Wax –—. 16. Reptiles –—. 17. Merchants –—. 18. Meteors –—. 19. Conscience –—. 20. Congress –—. 21. Life –—. 22. Vapors –—. 23. Music –—. 24. Pitch –—.

TO THE TEACHER.—This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject.

 

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LESSON 6.

ANALYSIS.

The predicate sometimes contains more than one word.

+Direction+.—_Analyze as in Lesson 4_.

1. Moisture is exhaled. 2. Conclusions are drawn. 3. Industry will enrich. 4. Stars have disappeared. 5. Twilight is falling. 6. Leaves are turning. 7. Sirius has appeared. 8. Constantinople had been captured. 9. Electricity has been harnessed. 10. Tempests have been raging. 11. Nuisances should be abated. 12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 13. Light can be reflected. 14. Rain must have fallen. 15. Planets have been discovered. 16. Palaces shall crumble. 17. Storms may be gathering. 18. Essex might have been saved. 19. Caesar could have been crowned, 20. Inventors may be encouraged.

+Direction+.—_Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 12 and 17_.

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or what before this predicate, the subject may easily be found.

TO THE TEACHER.—Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences.

When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will have been taken.

 

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LESSON 7.

COMPOSITION—SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

+Direction+.—_Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the three columns following_:—

The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 in order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences.

 

1 2 3

Arts is progressing. Allen was tested. Life are command. Theories will prolonged. Science would released. Truth were falling. Shadows may be burned. Moscow has been measured. Raleigh have been prevail. Quantity should have been lost.

Review Questions.

What is language proper? What is English grammar? What is a sentence? What are its two parts? What is the subject of a sentence? The predicate of a sentence? The analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule has been given for the use of capital letters? For the period? May the predicate contain more than one word? Illustrate.

TO THE TEACHER.—Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See “Introductory Hints” below.

 

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LESSON 8.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

NOUNS.

+Introductory Hints+.—We have now reached the point where we must classify the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by studying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar.

But may we not deal with words as we do with plants? If we had to study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master the botany even of our garden-plants.

But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another; and, as he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differences, we are able to group things that have like qualities.

From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowers together and call them roses; from other likenesses, we get another class called lilies; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the maple,