Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (small books to read TXT) 📖

>Clocks are, or There are clocks, are is not the name of. anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, or being.

When we say Clocks hang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words hang, stand, last, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in which clocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being.

All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call +Verbs+ (+Lat+. verbum, a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence.

Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and some that assert state of being.

+DEFINITION+.—+A Verb is a word that asserts action, being-, or state of being+.

There are, however, two forms of the verb, the participle and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state of being, without asserting it.

+Direction.+—_Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs as you can think of_:—

Let some express being and some express state of being.

+Model.—_Noun._ | burns. | melt. | scorches. Fire | keep. (or) + spreads. Fires | glow. | rages. | heat. | exists.

+Remark.+—Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, burn, melt, scorch, adds s or es when its subject noun names but one thing.

Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind.

A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, is learning, may be learned, could have been learned. [Footnote: Such groups of words are sometimes called verb-phrases. For definition of phrase, see Lesson 17.]

+Direction.+—_Unite the words in columns_ 2 and 3 below, and append the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column 1 so as to make good sentences:—

+Remark.+—Notice that is, was, and has are used with nouns naming one thing, and with the pronouns he, she, and it; and that are, were, and have are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with the pronouns we, you, and they. I may be used with am, was, and have.

 

1 2 3

Words am confused. Cotton is exported. Sugar are refined. Air coined. Teas was delivered. Speeches were weighed. I, we, you has been imported. He, she, it, they have been transferred.

As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a verb, or must contain a verb.

+Naming the class+ to which a word belongs is the +first step in parsing.+

+Direction+.—_Parse five of the sentences you have written_.

+Model+.—_Poland was dismembered_.

+Parsing+.—_Poland_ is a noun because –-; was dismembered is a verb because it asserts action.

 

*

 

LESSON 12.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

ADJECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.—The subject noun and the predicate verb are not always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them.

We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two oranges having the same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different.

It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them.

Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of things; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds—the ripe ones and the unripe ones.

These prefixed words ripe and unripe, then, limit the word apples in its scope; ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone applies to.

If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit; but the, this, or that points out a particular apple, and limits the word apple to the one pointed out; and an, no, some, many, or eight limits the word in respect to the number of apples that it denotes.

These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or by specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of the noun, +modify+ it, and are called +Modifiers+.

In the sentence above, apples is the +Simple Subject+ and ripe apples is the +Modified Subject+.

Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called +Adjectives+ (Lat. ad, to, and jacere, to throw).

 

+DEFINITION.—A Modifier is a word or a group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.

The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+, or Logical Subject.

+DEFINITION.—An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.

Analysis and Parsing.

1. The cold November rain is falling.

rain | is falling =========================|============== The cold November |

+Explanation.+—The two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand for the subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts, the modifiers, and show what is modified. [Footnote: TO THE TEACHER.—When several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not always modify the unlimited noun. That old wooden house was burned. Here wooden modifies house, old modifies house limited by wooden, and that modifies house limited by old and wooden. This may be illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their rank, thus:—

| ==================|======= 3 2 1 |

Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the same way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21.]

+TO THE TEACHER.+—While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that diagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say that the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these figures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred, our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion.

When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be required in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their aid altogether.

+Oral Analysis.+—(Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) The, cold, and November are modifiers of the subject. The cold November rain is the modified subject.

TO THE TEACHER.—While in these “models” we wish to avoid repetition, we should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some of the sentences in every Lesson.

+Parsing.+—The, cold, and November are adjectives modifying rain—_cold_ and November expressing quality, and the pointing out.

2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 3. A free people should be educated. 4. The old Liberty Bell was rung. 5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed. 9. I alone should suffer. 10. All nature rejoices. 11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. 14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. 15. Immense suspension bridges have been built.

 

*

 

LESSON 13.

COMPOSITION—ADJECTIVES.

+Caution.+—When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they will sound best—generally in the order of length, the shortest first.

+Explanation.+—_Two honest young men were chosen, A tall, straight, dignified person entered._ Young tells the kind of men, honest tells the kind of young men, and two tells the number of honest young men; hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. Tall, straight, and dignified modify person independently—the person is tall and straight and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same rank.

Notice the comma after tall and straight; and may be supplied; in the first sentence and cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21.

+Direction.+—_Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons:_—

1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five the fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlightened civilized nation.

+Direction.+—_Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these predicates:_—

1. –– have been invented. 2. –– were destroyed. 3. –– are cultivated. 4. –– may be abused. 5. –– was mutilated. 6. –– were carved. 7. –– have been discovered. 8. –– have fallen. 9. –– will be respected. 10. –– have been built.

+Direction.+—_Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a subject modified by three adjectives—one from each of these columns:_—

Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21.

The dark sunny That bright wearisome This dingy commercial Those short blue These soft adventurous Five brave fleecy Some tiny parallel Several important cheerless Many long golden A warm turbid

+Direction+.—_Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate adjectives:_—

River, frost, grain, ships, air, men.

+Direction+.—_Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most appropriately go together:_—

Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling.

 

*

 

LESSON 14.

MODIFIED PREDICATE.

ADVERBS.

+Introductory Hints+.—You have learned that the subject may be modified; let us see whether the predicate may be.

If we say, The leaves fall, we express a fact in a general way. But, if we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say, The leaves fall early; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall here; of the manner, The leaves fall quietly; of the cause, Why do the leaves fall?

We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall very quietly. Here very modifies quietly by telling the degree.

Very quietly is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+. Such words as very, here, and quietly form another part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+ (Lat. ad, to, and verbum, a word, or verb).

Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, Very ripe apples are healthful. Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns—by limiting them. The horse has a proud step = The horse steps proudly.

The +Predicate+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified +Predicate, or Logical Predicate.

+DEFINITION.—An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb,