The Ethics by Benedictus de Spinoza (most important books of all time .txt) 📖
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- Author: Benedictus de Spinoza
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I am not aware that any emotions are named after them.
VI. Love is pleasure, accompanied by the idea of an external
cause.
Explanation-This definition explains sufficiently clearly the
essence of love ; the definition given by those authors who say
that love is the lover’s wish to unite himself to the loved
object expresses a property, but not the essence of love ; and,
as such authors have not sufficiently discerned love’s essence,
they have been unable to acquire a true conception of its
properties, accordingly their definition is on all hands admitted
to be very obscure. It must, however, be noted, that when I say
that it is a property of love, that the lover should wish to
unite himself to the beloved object, I do not here mean by wish
consent, or conclusion, or a free decision of the mind (for I
have shown such, in II. xlviii., to be fictitious) ; neither do I
mean a desire of being united to the loved object when it is
absent, or of continuing in its presence when it is at hand ; for
love can be conceived without either of these desires ; but by
wish I mean the contentment, which is in the lover, on account of
the presence of the beloved object, whereby the pleasure of the
lover is strengthened, or at least maintained.
VII. Hatred is pain, accompanied by the idea of an external
cause.
Explanation-These observations are easily grasped after what
has been said in the explanation of the preceding definition (cf.
also III. xiii. note).
VIII. Inclination is pleasure, accompanied by the idea of
something which is accidentally a cause of pleasure.
IX. Aversion is pain, accompanied by the idea of something which
is accidentally the cause of pain (cf. III. xv. note).
X. Devotion is love towards one whom we admire.
Explanation-Wonder (admiratio) arises (as we have shown, III.
lii.) from the novelty of a thing. If, therefore, it happens
that the object of our wonder is often conceived by us, we shall
cease to wonder at it ; thus we see, that the emotion of devotion
readily degenerates into simple love.
XI. Derision is pleasure arising from our conceiving the
presence of a quality, which we despise, in an object which we
hate.
Explanation-In so far as we despise a thing which we hate, we
deny existence thereof (III. lii. note), and to that extent
rejoice (III. xx.). But since we assume that man hates that
which he derides, it follows that the pleasure in question is not
without alloy (cf. III. xlvii. note).
XII. Hope is an inconstant pleasure, arising from the idea of
something past or future, whereof we to a certain extent doubt
the issue.
XIII. Fear is an inconstant pain arising from the idea of
something past or future, whereof we to a certain extent doubt
the issue (cf. III. xviii. note).
Explanation-From these definitions it follows, that there is
no hope unmingled with fear, and no fear unmingled with hope.
For he, who depends on hope and doubts concerning the issue of
anything, is assumed to conceive something, which excludes the
existence of the said thing in the future ; therefore he, to this
extent, feels pain (cf. III. xix.) ; consequently, while
dependent on hope, he fears for the issue. Contrariwise he, who
fears, in other words doubts, concerning the issue of something
which he hates, also conceives something which excludes the
existence of the thing in question ; to this extent he feels
pleasure, and consequently to this extent he hopes that it will
turn out as he desires (III. xx.).
XIV. Confidence is pleasure arising from the idea of something
past or future, wherefrom all cause of doubt has been removed.
XV. Despair is pain arising from the idea of something past or
future, wherefrom all cause of doubt has been removed.
Explanation-Thus confidence springs from hope, and despair
from fear, when all cause for doubt as to the issue of an event
has been removed : this comes to pass, because man conceives
something past or future as present and regards it as such, or
else because he conceives other things, which exclude the
existence of the causes of his doubt. For, although we can never
be absolutely certain of the issue of any particular event (II.
xxxi. Coroll.), it may nevertheless happen that we feel no doubt
concerning it. For we have shown, that to feel no doubt
concerning a thing is not the same as to be quite certain of it
(II. xlix. note). Thus it may happen that we are affected by the
same emotion of pleasure or pain concerning a thing past or
future, as concerning the conception of a thing present ; this I
have already shown in III. xviii., to which, with its note, I
refer the reader.
XVI. Joy is pleasure accompanied by the idea of something past,
which has had an issue beyond our hope.
XVII. Disappointment is pain accompanied by the idea of
something past, which has had an issue contrary to our hope.
XVIII. Pity is pain accompanied by the idea of evil, which has
befallen someone else whom we conceive to be like ourselves (cf.
III. xxii. note, and III. xxvii. note).
Explanation-Between pity and sympathy (misericordia) there
seems to be no difference, unless perhaps that the former term is
used in reference to a particular action, and the latter in
reference to a disposition.
XIX. Approval is love towards one who has done good to another.
XX. Indignation is hatred towards one who has done evil to
another.
Explanation-I am aware that these terms are employed in
senses somewhat different from those usually assigned. But my
purpose is to explain, not the meaning of words, but the nature
of things. I therefore make use of such terms, as may convey my
meaning without any violent departure from their ordinary
signification. One statement of my method will suffice. As for
the cause of the above-named emotions see III. xxvii. Coroll. i.,
and III. xxii. note.
XXI. Partiality is thinking too highly of anyone because of the
love we bear him.
XXII. Disparagement is thinking too meanly of anyone because we
hate him.
Explanation-Thus partiality is an effect of love, and
disparagement an effect of hatred : so that partiality may also
be defined as love, in so far as it induces a man to think too
highly of a beloved object. Contrariwise, disparagement may be
defined as hatred, in so far as it induces a man to think too
meanly of a hated object. Cf. III. xxvi. note.
XXIII. Envy is hatred, in so far as it induces a man to be
pained by another’s good fortune, and to rejoice in another’s
evil fortune.
Explanation-Envy is generally opposed to sympathy, which, by
doing some violence to the meaning of the word, may therefore be
thus defined :
XXIV. Sympathy (misericordia) is love, in so far as it induces a
man to feel pleasure at another’s good fortune, and pain at
another’s evil fortune.
Explanation-Concerning envy see the notes to III. xxiv. and
xxxii. These emotions also arise from pleasure or pain
accompanied by the idea of something external, as cause either in
itself or accidentally. I now pass on to other emotions, which
are accompanied by the idea of something within as a cause.
XXV. Self-approval is pleasure arising from a man’s
contemplation of himself and his own power of action.
XXVI. Humility is pain arising from a man’s contemplation of his
own weakness of body or mind.
Explanation-Self-complacency is opposed to humility, in so
far as we thereby mean pleasure arising from a contemplation of
our own power of action ; but, in so far as we mean thereby
pleasure accompanied by the idea of any action which we believe
we have performed by the free decision of our mind, it is opposed
to repentance, which we may thus define :
XXVII. Repentance is pain accompanied by the idea of some
action, which we believe we have performed by the free decision
of our mind.
Explanation-The causes of these emotions we have set forth in
III. li. note, and in III. liii., liv., lv. and note. Concerning
the free decision of the mind see II. xxxv. note. This is
perhaps the place to call attention to the fact, that it is
nothing wonderful that all those actions, which are commonly
called wrong, are followed by pain, and all those, which are
called right, are followed by pleasure. We can easily gather
from what has been said, that this depends in great measure on
education. Parents, by reprobating the former class of actions,
and by frequently chiding their children because of them, and
also by persuading to and praising the latter class, have brought
it about, that the former should be associated with pain and the
latter with pleasure. This is confirmed by experience. For
custom and religion are not the same among all men, but that
which some consider sacred others consider profane, and what some
consider honourable others consider disgraceful. According as
each man has been educated, he feels repentance for a given
action or glories therein.
XXVIII. Pride is thinking too highly of one’s self from
self-love.
Explanation-Thus pride is different from partiality, for the
latter term is used in reference to an external object, but pride
is used of a man thinking too highly of himself. However, as
partiality is the effect of love, so is pride the effect or
property of self-love, which may therefore be thus defined, love
of self or self-approval, in so far as it leads a man to think
too highly of himself. To this emotion there is no contrary.
For no one thinks too meanly of himself because of self-hatred ;
I say that no one thinks too meanly of himself, in so far as he
conceives that he is incapable of doing this or that. For
whatsoever a man imagines that he is incapable of doing, he
imagines this of necessity, and by that notion he is so disposed,
that he really cannot do that which he conceives that he cannot
do. For, so long as he conceives that he cannot do it, so long
is he not determined to do it, and consequently so long is it
impossible for him to do it. However, if we consider such
matters as only depend on opinion, we shall find it conceivable
that a man may think too meanly of himself ; for it may happen,
that a man, sorrowfully regarding his own weakness, should
imagine that he is despised by all men, while the rest of the
world are thinking of nothing less than of despising him. Again,
a man may think too meanly of himself, if he deny of himself in
the present something in relation to a future time of which he is
uncertain. As, for instance, if he should say that he is unable
to form any clear conceptions, or that he can desire and do
nothing but what is wicked and base, &c. We may also say, that a
man thinks too meanly of himself, when we see him from excessive
fear of shame refusing to do things which others, his equals,
venture. We can, therefore, set down as a contrary to pride an
emotion which I will call self-abasement, for as from
self-complacency springs pride, so from humility springs
self-abasement, which I will accordingly thus define :
XXIX. Self-abasement is thinking too meanly of one’s self by
reason of pain.
Explanation-We are nevertheless generally accustomed to
oppose pride to humility, but in that case we pay more attention
to the effect of either emotion than to its nature. We are wont
to call proud the
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