The Evolution of Man, vol 1 by Ernst Haeckel (manga ereader TXT) 📖

no membrane at all in the first stage. The young cells are usually round, but they vary much in shape later on. Illustrations of this will be found in the cells of the various parts of the body shown in Figures 1.3 to 1.7.

Hence the essential point in the modern idea of the cell is that it is made up of two different active constituents—an inner and an outer part. The smaller and inner part is the nucleus (or caryon or cytoblastus, Figure 1.1 c and Figure 1.2 k). The outer and larger part, which encloses the other, is the body of the cell (celleus, cytos, or cytosoma). The soft living substance of which the two are composed has a peculiar chemical composition, and belongs to the group of the albuminoid plasma-substances (“formative matter”), or protoplasm. The essential and indispensable element of the nucleus is called nuclein (or caryoplasm); that of the cell body is called plastin (or cytoplasm). In the most rudimentary cases both substances seem to be quite simple and homogeneous, without any visible structure. But, as a rule, when we examine them under a high power of the microscope, we find a certain structure in the protoplasm. The chief and most common form of this is the fibrous or net-like “thready structure” (Frommann) and the frothy “honeycomb structure” (Butschli).

(FIGURE 1.2. Stem-cell of one of the echinoderms (cytula, or “first segmentation-cell” = fertilised ovum), after Hertwig. k is the nucleus or caryon.)

The shape or outer form of the cell is infinitely varied, in accordance with its endless power of adapting itself to the most diverse activities or environments. In its simplest form the cell is globular (Figure 1.2). This normal round form is especially found in cells of the simplest construction, and those that are developed in a free fluid without any external pressure. In such cases the nucleus also is not infrequently round, and located in the centre of the cell-body (Figure 1.2 k). In other cases, the cells have no definite shape; they are constantly changing their form owing to their automatic movements. This is the case with the amoebae (Figures 1.15

and 1.16) and the amoeboid travelling cells (Figure 1.11), and also with very young ova (Figure 1.13). However, as a rule, the cell assumes a definite form in the course of its career. In the tissues of the multicellular organism, in which a number of similar cells are bound together in virtue of certain laws of heredity, the shape is determined partly by the form of their connection and partly by their special functions. Thus, for instance, we find in the mucous lining of our tongue very thin and delicate flat cells of roundish shape (Figure 1.3). In the outer skin we find similar, but harder, covering cells, joined together by saw-like edges (Figure 1.4). In the liver and other glands there are thicker and softer cells, linked together in rows (Figure 1.5).

The last-named tissues (Figures 1.3 to 1.5) belong to the simplest and most primitive type, the group of the “covering-tissues,” or epithelia. In these “primary tissues” (to which the germinal layers belong) simple cells of the same kind are arranged in layers. The arrangement and shape are more complicated in the “secondary tissues,”

which are gradually developed out of the primary, as in the tissues of the muscles, nerves, bones, etc. In the bones, for instance, which belong to the group of supporting or connecting organs, the cells (Figure 1.6) are star-shaped, and are joined together by numbers of net-like interlacing processes; so, also, in the tissues of the teeth (Figure 1.7), and in other forms of supporting-tissue, in which a soft or hard substance (intercellular matter, or base) is inserted between the cells.

(FIGURE 1.3. Three epithelial cells from the mucous lining of the tongue.

FIGURE 1.4. Five spiny or grooved cells, with edges joined, from the outer skin (epidermis): one of them (b) is isolated.

FIGURE 1.5. Ten liver-cells: one of them (b) has two nuclei.) The cells also differ very much in size. The great majority of them are invisible to the naked eye, and can be seen only through the microscope (being as a rule between 1/2500 and 1/250 inch in diameter). There are many of the smaller plastids—such as the famous bacteria—which only come into view with a very high magnifying power.

On the other hand, many cells attain a considerable size, and run occasionally to several inches in diameter, as do certain kinds of rhizopods among the unicellular protists (such as the radiolaria and thalamophora). Among the tissue-cells of the animal body many of the muscular fibres and nerve fibres are more than four inches, and sometimes more than a yard, in length. Among the largest cells are the yelk-filled ova; as, for instance, the yellow “yolk” in the hen’s egg, which we shall describe later (Figure 1.15).

Cells also vary considerably in structure. In this connection we must first distinguish between the active and passive components of the cell. It is only the former, or active parts of the cell, that really live, and effect that marvellous world of phenomena to which we give the name of “organic life.” The first of these is the inner nucleus (caryoplasm), and the second the body of the cell (cytoplasm). The passive portions come third; these are subsequently formed from the others, and I have given them the name of “plasma-products.” They are partly external (cell-membranes and intercellular matter) and partly internal (cell-sap and cell-contents).

The nucleus (or caryon), which is usually of a simple roundish form, is quite structureless at first (especially in very young cells), and composed of homogeneous nuclear matter or caryoplasm (Figure 1.2 k).

But, as a rule, it forms a sort of vesicle later on, in which we can distinguish a more solid nuclear base (caryobasis) and a softer or fluid nuclear sap (caryolymph). In a mesh of the nuclear network (or it may be on the inner side of the nuclear envelope) there is, as a rule, a dark, very opaque, solid body, called the nucleolus. Many of the nuclei contain several of these nucleoli (as, for instance, the germinal vesicle of the ova of fishes and amphibia). Recently a very small, but particularly important, part of the nucleus has been distinguished as the central body (centrosoma)—a tiny particle that is originally found in the nucleus itself, but is usually outside it, in the cytoplasm; as a rule, fine threads stream out from it in the cytoplasm. From the position of the central body with regard to the other parts it seems probable that it has a high physiological importance as a centre of movement; but it is lacking in many cells.

The cell-body also consists originally, and in its simplest form, of a homogeneous viscid plasmic matter. But, as a rule, only the smaller part of it is formed of the living active cell-substance (protoplasm); the greater part consists of dead, passive plasma-products (metaplasm). It is useful to distinguish between the inner and outer of these. External plasma-products (which are thrust out from the protoplasm as solid “structural matter”) are the cell-membranes and the intercellular matter. The internal plasma-products are either the fluid cell-sap or hard structures. As a rule, in mature and differentiated cells these various parts are so arranged that the protoplasm (like the caryoplasm in the round nucleus) forms a sort of skeleton or framework. The spaces of this network are filled partly with the fluid cell-sap and partly by hard structural products.

(FIGURE 1.6. Nine star-shaped bone-cells, with interlaced branches.

FIGURE 1.7. Eleven star-shaped cells from the enamel of a tooth, joined together by their branchlets.)

The simple round ovum, which we take as the starting-point of our study (Figures 1.1 and 1.2), has in many cases the vague, indifferent features of the typical primitive cell. As a contrast to it, and as an instance of a very highly differentiated plastid, we may consider for a moment a large nerve-cell, or ganglionic cell, from the brain. The ovum stands potentially for the entire organism—in other words, it has the faculty of building up out of itself the whole multicellular body. It is the common parent of all the countless generations of cells which form the different tissues of the body; it unites all their powers in itself, though only potentially or in germ. In complete contrast to this, the neural cell in the brain (Figure 1.9) develops along one rigid line. It cannot, like the ovum, beget endless generations of cells, of which some will become skin-cells, others muscle-cells, and others again bone-cells. But, on the other hand, the nerve-cell has become fitted to discharge the highest functions of life; it has the powers of sensation, will, and thought. It is a real soul-cell, or an elementary organ of the psychic activity. It has, therefore, a most elaborate and delicate structure. Numbers of extremely fine threads, like the electric wires at a large telegraphic centre, cross and recross in the delicate protoplasm of the nerve cell, and pass out in the branching processes which proceed from it and put it in communication with other nerve-cells or nerve-fibres (a, b). We can only partly follow their intricate paths in the fine matter of the body of the cell.

Here we have a most elaborate apparatus, the delicate structure of which we are just beginning to appreciate through our most powerful microscopes, but whose significance is rather a matter of conjecture than knowledge. Its intricate structure corresponds to the very complicated functions of the mind. Nevertheless, this elementary organ of psychic activity—of which there are thousands in our brain—is nothing but a single cell. Our whole mental life is only the joint result of the combined activity of all these nerve-cells, or soul-cells. In the centre of each cell there is a large transparent nucleus, containing a small and dark nuclear body. Here, as elsewhere, it is the nucleus that determines the individuality of the cell; it proves that the whole structure, in spite of its intricate composition, amounts to only a single cell.

(FIGURE 1.8. Unfertilised ovum of an echinoderm (from Hertwig). The vesicular nucleus (or “germinal vesicle”) is globular, half the size of the round ovum, and encloses a nuclear framework, in the central knot of which there is a dark nucleolus (the “germinal spot”).

FIGURE 1.9. A large branching nerve-cell, or “soul-cell,” from the brain of an electric fish (Torpedo), magnified 600 times. In the middle of the cell is the large transparent round nucleus, one nucleolus, and, within the latter again, a nucleolinus. The protoplasm of the cell is split into innumerable fine threads (or fibrils), which are embedded in intercellular matter, and are prolonged into the branching processes of the cell (b). One branch (a) passes into a nerve-fibre. (From Max Schultze.))

In contrast with this very elaborate and very strictly differentiated psychic cell (Figure 1.9), we have our ovum (Figures 1.1 and 1.2), which has hardly any structure at all. But even in the case of the ovum we must infer from its properties that its protoplasmic body has a very complicated chemical composition and a fine molecular structure which escapes our observation. This presumed molecular structure of the plasm is now generally admitted; but it has never been seen, and, indeed, lies far beyond the range of microscopic vision. It must not be confused—as is often done—with the structure of the plasm (the fibrous network, groups of granules, honeycomb, etc.) which does come within the range of the microscope.

But when we speak of the cells as the elementary organisms, or structural units, or “ultimate individualities,” we must bear in mind a certain restriction of the phrases. I mean, that the cells are not, as is often supposed, the very lowest stage of organic individuality.

There are yet more elementary organisms to which I must refer occasionally. These are what we call the “cytodes” (cytos = cell),