Volcanic Islands by Charles Robert Darwin (reading books for 6 year olds TXT) 📖
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the whole country is granitic, with the constituent minerals sometimes obscurely arranged in straight or curved laminae. In these cases, the rock would be called by Humboldt, gneiss-granite, and it is remarkable that the form of the bare conical hills, appearing to be composed of great folding layers, strikingly resembles, on a small scale, those composed of gneiss-granite at Rio de Janeiro, and those described by Humboldt at Venezuela. These plutonic rocks are, in many places, intersected by trappean-dikes; in one place, I found ten parallel dikes ranging in an E. and W. line; and not far off another set of eight dikes, composed of a different variety of trap, ranging at right angles to the former ones. I have observed in several primary districts, the occurrence of systems of dikes parallel and close to each other.
SUPERFICIAL FERRUGINOUS BEDS.
The lower parts of the country are everywhere covered by a bed, following the inequalities of the surface, of a honeycombed sandstone, abounding with oxides of iron. Beds of nearly similar composition are common, I believe, along the whole western coast of Australia, and on many of the East Indian islands. At the Cape of Good Hope, at the base of the mountains formed of granite and capped with sandstone, the ground is everywhere coated either by a fine-grained, rubbly, ochraceous mass, like that at King George's Sound, or by a coarser sandstone with fragments of quartz, and rendered hard and heavy by an abundance of the hydrate of iron, which presents, when freshly broken, a metallic lustre. Both these varieties have a very irregular texture, including spaces either rounded or angular, full of loose sand: from this cause the surface is always honeycombed. The oxide of iron is most abundant on the edges of the cavities, where alone it affords a metallic fracture. In these formations, as well as in many true sedimentary deposits, it is evident that iron tends to become aggregated, either in the form of a shell, or of a network. The origin of these superficial beds, though sufficiently obscure, seems to be due to alluvial action on detritus abounding with iron.
SUPERFICIAL CALCAREOUS DEPOSIT.
A calcareous deposit on the summit of Bald Head, containing branched bodies, supposed by some authors to have been corals, has been celebrated by the descriptions of many distinguished voyagers. (I visited this hill, in company with Captain Fitzroy, and we came to a similar conclusion regarding these branching bodies.) It folds round and conceals irregular hummocks of granite, at the height of 600 feet above the level of the sea. It varies much in thickness; where stratified, the beds are often inclined at high angles, even as much as at thirty degrees, and they dip in all directions. These beds are sometimes crossed by oblique and even-sided laminae. The deposit consists either of a fine, white calcareous powder, in which not a trace of structure can be discovered, or of exceedingly minute, rounded grains, of brown, yellowish, and purplish colours; both varieties being generally, but not always, mixed with small particles of quartz, and being cemented into a more or less perfect stone. The rounded calcareous grains, when heated in a slight degree, instantly lose their colours; in this and in every other respect, closely resembling those minute, equal- sized particles of shells and corals, which at St. Helena have been drifted up the side of the mountains, and have thus been winnowed of all coarser fragments. I cannot doubt that the coloured calcareous particles here have had a similar origin. The impalpable powder has probably been derived from the decay of the rounded particles; this certainly is possible, for on the coast of Peru, I have traced LARGE UNBROKEN shells gradually falling into a substance as fine as powdered chalk. Both of the above-mentioned varieties of calcareous sandstone frequently alternate with, and blend into, thin layers of a hard substalagmitic rock, which, even when the stone on each side contains particles of quartz, is entirely free from them (I adopt this term from Lieutenant Nelson's excellent paper on the Bermuda Islands "Geolog. Trans." volume 5 page 106, for the hard, compact, cream- or brown- coloured stone, without any crystalline structure, which so often accompanies superficial calcareous accumulations. I have observed such superficial beds, coated with substalagmitic rock, at the Cape of Good Hope, in several parts of Chile, and over wide spaces in La Plata and Patagonia. Some of these beds have been formed from decayed shells, but the origin of the greater number is sufficiently obscure. The causes which determine water to dissolve lime, and then soon to redeposit it, are not, I think, known. The surface of the substalagmitic layers appears always to be corroded by the rain-water. As all the above-mentioned countries have a long dry season, compared with the rainy one, I should have thought that the presence of the substalagmitic was connected with the climate, had not Lieutenant Nelson found this substance forming under sea-water. Disintegrated shell seems to be extremely soluble; of which I found good evidence, in a curious rock at Coquimbo in Chile, which consisted of small, pellucid, empty husks, cemented together. A series of specimens clearly showed that these husks had originally contained small rounded particles of shells, which had been enveloped and cemented together by calcareous matter (as often happens on sea-beaches), and which subsequently had decayed, and been dissolved by water, that must have penetrated through the calcareous husks, without corroding them,--of which processes every stage could be seen.): hence we must suppose that these layers, as well as certain vein- like masses, have been formed by rain dissolving the calcareous matter and re-precipitating it, as has happened at St. Helena. Each layer probably marks a fresh surface, when the, now firmly cemented, particles existed as loose sand. These layers are sometimes brecciated and re-cemented, as if they had been broken by the slipping of the sand when soft. I did not find a single fragment of a sea-shell; but bleached shells of the Helix melo, an existing land species, abound in all the strata; and I likewise found another Helix, and the case of an Oniscus.
The branches are absolutely undistinguishable in shape from the broken and upright stumps of a thicket; their roots are often uncovered, and are seen to diverge on all sides; here and there a branch lies prostrate. The branches generally consist of the sandstone, rather firmer than the surrounding matter, with the central parts filled, either with friable, calcareous matter, or with a substalagmitic variety; this central part is also frequently penetrated by linear crevices, sometimes, though rarely, containing a trace of woody matter. These calcareous, branching bodies, appear to have been formed by fine calcareous matter being washed into the casts or cavities, left by the decay of branches and roots of thickets, buried under drifted sand. The whole surface of the hill is now undergoing disintegration, and hence the casts, which are compact and hard, are left projecting. In calcareous sand at the Cape of Good Hope, I found the casts, described by Abel, quite similar to these at Bald Head; but their centres are often filled with black carbonaceous matter not yet removed. It is not surprising, that the woody matter should have been almost entirely removed from the casts on Bald Head; for it is certain, that many centuries must have elapsed since the thickets were buried; at present, owing to the form and height of the narrow promontory, no sand is drifted up, and the whole surface, as I have remarked, is wearing away. We must, therefore, look back to a period when the land stood lower, of which the French naturalists (See M. Peron "Voyage" tome 1 page 204.) found evidence in upraised shells of recent species, for the drifting on Bald Head of the calcareous and quartzose sand, and the consequent embedment of the vegetable remains. There was only one appearance which at first made me doubt concerning the origin of the cast,--namely, that the finer roots from different stems sometimes became united together into upright plates or veins; but when the manner is borne in mind in which fine roots often fill up cracks in hard earth, and that these roots would decay and leave hollows, as well as the stems, there is no real difficulty in this case. Besides the calcareous branches from the Cape of Good Hope, I have seen casts, of exactly the same forms, from Madeira* and from Bermuda; at this latter place, the surrounding calcareous rocks, judging from the specimens collected by Lieutenant Nelson, are likewise similar, as is their subaerial formation. Reflecting on the stratification of the deposit on Bald Head,--on the irregularly alternating layers of substalagmitic rock,--on the uniformly sized, and rounded particles, apparently of sea-shells and corals,--on the abundance of land-shells throughout the mass,--and finally, on the absolute resemblance of the calcareous casts, to the stumps, roots, and branches of that kind of vegetation, which would grow on sand-hillocks, I think there can be no reasonable doubt, notwithstanding the different opinion of some authors, that a true view of their origin has been here given.
*(Dr. J. Macaulay has fully described ("Edinb. New Phil. Journ." volume 29 page 350) the casts from Madeira. He considers (differently from Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill) these bodies to be corals, and the calcareous deposit to be of subaqueous origin. His arguments chiefly rest (for his remarks on their structure are vague) on the great quantity of the calcareous matter, and on the casts containing animal matter, as shown by their evolving ammonia. Had Dr. Macaulay seen the enormous masses of rolled particles of shells and corals on the beach of Ascension, and especially on coral-reefs; and had he reflected on the effects of long-continued, gentle winds, in drifting up the finer particles, he would hardly have advanced the argument of quantity, which is seldom trustworthy in geology. If the calcareous matter has originated from disintegrated shells and corals, the presence of animal matter is what might have been expected. Mr. Anderson analysed for Dr. Macaulay part of a cast, and he found it composed of:--
Carbonate of lime......73.15
Silica.................11.90
Phosphate of lime.......8.81
Animal matter...........4.25
Sulphate of lime......a trace
98.11)
Calcareous deposits, like these of King George's Sound, are of vast extent on the Australian shores. Dr. Fitton remarks, that "recent calcareous breccia (by which term all these deposits are included) was found during Baudin's voyage, over a space of no less than twenty-five degrees of latitude and an equal extent of longitude, on the southern, western, and north-western coasts." (For ample details on this formation consult Dr. Fitton "Appendix to Captain King's Voyage." Dr. Fitton is inclined to attribute a concretionary origin to the branching bodies: I may remark, that I have seen in beds of sand in La Plata cylindrical stems which no doubt thus originated; but they differed much in appearance from these at Bald Head, and the other places above specified.) It appears also from M. Peron, with whose observations and opinions on the origin of the calcareous matter and branching casts mine entirely accord, that the deposit is generally much more continuous than near King George's Sound. At Swan River, Archdeacon Scott states that in one part it extends ten miles inland. ("Proceedings of the Geolog. Soc." volume 1 page 320.) Captain Wickham, moreover, informs me that during his late survey of the western coast, the bottom of the sea, wherever the vessel anchored, was ascertained, by crowbars being let down, to consist of white calcareous matter. Hence it seems that along this coast, as at Bermuda and at Keeling Atoll, submarine and subaerial deposits are contemporaneously in process of formation, from the disintegration of marine organic bodies. The extent of these
SUPERFICIAL FERRUGINOUS BEDS.
The lower parts of the country are everywhere covered by a bed, following the inequalities of the surface, of a honeycombed sandstone, abounding with oxides of iron. Beds of nearly similar composition are common, I believe, along the whole western coast of Australia, and on many of the East Indian islands. At the Cape of Good Hope, at the base of the mountains formed of granite and capped with sandstone, the ground is everywhere coated either by a fine-grained, rubbly, ochraceous mass, like that at King George's Sound, or by a coarser sandstone with fragments of quartz, and rendered hard and heavy by an abundance of the hydrate of iron, which presents, when freshly broken, a metallic lustre. Both these varieties have a very irregular texture, including spaces either rounded or angular, full of loose sand: from this cause the surface is always honeycombed. The oxide of iron is most abundant on the edges of the cavities, where alone it affords a metallic fracture. In these formations, as well as in many true sedimentary deposits, it is evident that iron tends to become aggregated, either in the form of a shell, or of a network. The origin of these superficial beds, though sufficiently obscure, seems to be due to alluvial action on detritus abounding with iron.
SUPERFICIAL CALCAREOUS DEPOSIT.
A calcareous deposit on the summit of Bald Head, containing branched bodies, supposed by some authors to have been corals, has been celebrated by the descriptions of many distinguished voyagers. (I visited this hill, in company with Captain Fitzroy, and we came to a similar conclusion regarding these branching bodies.) It folds round and conceals irregular hummocks of granite, at the height of 600 feet above the level of the sea. It varies much in thickness; where stratified, the beds are often inclined at high angles, even as much as at thirty degrees, and they dip in all directions. These beds are sometimes crossed by oblique and even-sided laminae. The deposit consists either of a fine, white calcareous powder, in which not a trace of structure can be discovered, or of exceedingly minute, rounded grains, of brown, yellowish, and purplish colours; both varieties being generally, but not always, mixed with small particles of quartz, and being cemented into a more or less perfect stone. The rounded calcareous grains, when heated in a slight degree, instantly lose their colours; in this and in every other respect, closely resembling those minute, equal- sized particles of shells and corals, which at St. Helena have been drifted up the side of the mountains, and have thus been winnowed of all coarser fragments. I cannot doubt that the coloured calcareous particles here have had a similar origin. The impalpable powder has probably been derived from the decay of the rounded particles; this certainly is possible, for on the coast of Peru, I have traced LARGE UNBROKEN shells gradually falling into a substance as fine as powdered chalk. Both of the above-mentioned varieties of calcareous sandstone frequently alternate with, and blend into, thin layers of a hard substalagmitic rock, which, even when the stone on each side contains particles of quartz, is entirely free from them (I adopt this term from Lieutenant Nelson's excellent paper on the Bermuda Islands "Geolog. Trans." volume 5 page 106, for the hard, compact, cream- or brown- coloured stone, without any crystalline structure, which so often accompanies superficial calcareous accumulations. I have observed such superficial beds, coated with substalagmitic rock, at the Cape of Good Hope, in several parts of Chile, and over wide spaces in La Plata and Patagonia. Some of these beds have been formed from decayed shells, but the origin of the greater number is sufficiently obscure. The causes which determine water to dissolve lime, and then soon to redeposit it, are not, I think, known. The surface of the substalagmitic layers appears always to be corroded by the rain-water. As all the above-mentioned countries have a long dry season, compared with the rainy one, I should have thought that the presence of the substalagmitic was connected with the climate, had not Lieutenant Nelson found this substance forming under sea-water. Disintegrated shell seems to be extremely soluble; of which I found good evidence, in a curious rock at Coquimbo in Chile, which consisted of small, pellucid, empty husks, cemented together. A series of specimens clearly showed that these husks had originally contained small rounded particles of shells, which had been enveloped and cemented together by calcareous matter (as often happens on sea-beaches), and which subsequently had decayed, and been dissolved by water, that must have penetrated through the calcareous husks, without corroding them,--of which processes every stage could be seen.): hence we must suppose that these layers, as well as certain vein- like masses, have been formed by rain dissolving the calcareous matter and re-precipitating it, as has happened at St. Helena. Each layer probably marks a fresh surface, when the, now firmly cemented, particles existed as loose sand. These layers are sometimes brecciated and re-cemented, as if they had been broken by the slipping of the sand when soft. I did not find a single fragment of a sea-shell; but bleached shells of the Helix melo, an existing land species, abound in all the strata; and I likewise found another Helix, and the case of an Oniscus.
The branches are absolutely undistinguishable in shape from the broken and upright stumps of a thicket; their roots are often uncovered, and are seen to diverge on all sides; here and there a branch lies prostrate. The branches generally consist of the sandstone, rather firmer than the surrounding matter, with the central parts filled, either with friable, calcareous matter, or with a substalagmitic variety; this central part is also frequently penetrated by linear crevices, sometimes, though rarely, containing a trace of woody matter. These calcareous, branching bodies, appear to have been formed by fine calcareous matter being washed into the casts or cavities, left by the decay of branches and roots of thickets, buried under drifted sand. The whole surface of the hill is now undergoing disintegration, and hence the casts, which are compact and hard, are left projecting. In calcareous sand at the Cape of Good Hope, I found the casts, described by Abel, quite similar to these at Bald Head; but their centres are often filled with black carbonaceous matter not yet removed. It is not surprising, that the woody matter should have been almost entirely removed from the casts on Bald Head; for it is certain, that many centuries must have elapsed since the thickets were buried; at present, owing to the form and height of the narrow promontory, no sand is drifted up, and the whole surface, as I have remarked, is wearing away. We must, therefore, look back to a period when the land stood lower, of which the French naturalists (See M. Peron "Voyage" tome 1 page 204.) found evidence in upraised shells of recent species, for the drifting on Bald Head of the calcareous and quartzose sand, and the consequent embedment of the vegetable remains. There was only one appearance which at first made me doubt concerning the origin of the cast,--namely, that the finer roots from different stems sometimes became united together into upright plates or veins; but when the manner is borne in mind in which fine roots often fill up cracks in hard earth, and that these roots would decay and leave hollows, as well as the stems, there is no real difficulty in this case. Besides the calcareous branches from the Cape of Good Hope, I have seen casts, of exactly the same forms, from Madeira* and from Bermuda; at this latter place, the surrounding calcareous rocks, judging from the specimens collected by Lieutenant Nelson, are likewise similar, as is their subaerial formation. Reflecting on the stratification of the deposit on Bald Head,--on the irregularly alternating layers of substalagmitic rock,--on the uniformly sized, and rounded particles, apparently of sea-shells and corals,--on the abundance of land-shells throughout the mass,--and finally, on the absolute resemblance of the calcareous casts, to the stumps, roots, and branches of that kind of vegetation, which would grow on sand-hillocks, I think there can be no reasonable doubt, notwithstanding the different opinion of some authors, that a true view of their origin has been here given.
*(Dr. J. Macaulay has fully described ("Edinb. New Phil. Journ." volume 29 page 350) the casts from Madeira. He considers (differently from Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill) these bodies to be corals, and the calcareous deposit to be of subaqueous origin. His arguments chiefly rest (for his remarks on their structure are vague) on the great quantity of the calcareous matter, and on the casts containing animal matter, as shown by their evolving ammonia. Had Dr. Macaulay seen the enormous masses of rolled particles of shells and corals on the beach of Ascension, and especially on coral-reefs; and had he reflected on the effects of long-continued, gentle winds, in drifting up the finer particles, he would hardly have advanced the argument of quantity, which is seldom trustworthy in geology. If the calcareous matter has originated from disintegrated shells and corals, the presence of animal matter is what might have been expected. Mr. Anderson analysed for Dr. Macaulay part of a cast, and he found it composed of:--
Carbonate of lime......73.15
Silica.................11.90
Phosphate of lime.......8.81
Animal matter...........4.25
Sulphate of lime......a trace
98.11)
Calcareous deposits, like these of King George's Sound, are of vast extent on the Australian shores. Dr. Fitton remarks, that "recent calcareous breccia (by which term all these deposits are included) was found during Baudin's voyage, over a space of no less than twenty-five degrees of latitude and an equal extent of longitude, on the southern, western, and north-western coasts." (For ample details on this formation consult Dr. Fitton "Appendix to Captain King's Voyage." Dr. Fitton is inclined to attribute a concretionary origin to the branching bodies: I may remark, that I have seen in beds of sand in La Plata cylindrical stems which no doubt thus originated; but they differed much in appearance from these at Bald Head, and the other places above specified.) It appears also from M. Peron, with whose observations and opinions on the origin of the calcareous matter and branching casts mine entirely accord, that the deposit is generally much more continuous than near King George's Sound. At Swan River, Archdeacon Scott states that in one part it extends ten miles inland. ("Proceedings of the Geolog. Soc." volume 1 page 320.) Captain Wickham, moreover, informs me that during his late survey of the western coast, the bottom of the sea, wherever the vessel anchored, was ascertained, by crowbars being let down, to consist of white calcareous matter. Hence it seems that along this coast, as at Bermuda and at Keeling Atoll, submarine and subaerial deposits are contemporaneously in process of formation, from the disintegration of marine organic bodies. The extent of these
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