Seasoning of Wood by Joseph Bernard Wagner (urban books to read .txt) 📖

start with, and the most rapid rate was 1.6 per cent loss per hour.

The heat of evaporation may be supplied either by superheated steam or by steam pipes within the kiln itself.

The quantity of wood it is necessary to carry in stock is naturally reduced when either of the other two objects is attained and, therefore, need not necessarily be discussed.

In drying to prepare for use and to improve quality, careful and scientific drying is called for. This applies more particularly to the hardwoods, although it may be required for softwoods also.

Drying at Atmospheric Pressure

Present practice of kiln-drying varies tremendously and there is no uniformity or standard method.

Temperatures vary anywhere from 65 to 165 degrees Fahrenheit, or even higher, and inch boards three to six months on the sticks are being dried in from four days to three weeks, and three-inch material in from two to five months.

All methods in use at atmospheric pressure may be classified under the following headings. The kilns may be either progressive or compartment, and preliminary steaming may or may not be used with any one of these methods:

1. Dry air heated. This is generally obsolete. 2. Moist air. a. Ventilated. b. Forced draft. c. Condensing. d. Humidity regulated. e. Boiling. 3. Superheated steam. Drying under Pressure and Vacuum

Various methods of drying wood under pressures other than atmospheric have been tried. Only a brief mention of this subject will be made. Where the apparatus is available probably the quickest way to dry wood is first to heat it in saturated steam at as high a temperature as the species can endure without serious chemical change until the heat has penetrated to the center, then follow this with a vacuum.

By this means the self-contained specific heat of the wood and the water is made available for the evaporation, and the drying takes place from the inside outwardly, just the reverse of that which occurs by drying by means of external heat.

When the specimen has cooled this process is then to be repeated until it has dried down to fibre-saturation point. It cannot be dried much below this point by this method, since the absorption during the heating operation will then equal the evaporation during the cooling. It may be carried further, however, by heating in partially humidified air, proportioning the relative humidity each time it is heated to the degree of moisture present in the wood.

The point to be considered in this operation is that during the heating process no evaporation shall be allowed to take place, but only during the cooling. In this way surface drying and "case-hardening" are prevented since the heat is from within and the moisture passes from the inside outwardly. However, with some species, notably oak, surface cracks appear as a network of fine checks along the medullary rays.

In the first place, it should be borne in mind that it is the heat which produces evaporation and not the air nor any mysterious property assigned to a "vacuum."

For every pound of water evaporated at ordinary temperatures approximately 1,000 British thermal units of heat are used up, or "become latent," as it is called. This is true whether the evaporation takes place in a vacuum or under a moderate air pressure. If this heat is not supplied from an outside source it must be supplied by the water itself (or the material being dried), the temperature of which will consequently fall until the surrounding space becomes saturated with vapor at a pressure corresponding to the temperature which the water has reached; evaporation will then cease. The pressure of the vapor in a space saturated with water vapor increases rapidly with increase of temperature. At a so-called vacuum of 28 inches, which is about the limit in commercial operations, and in reality signifies an actual pressure of 2 inches of mercury column, the space will be saturated with vapor at 101 degrees Fahrenheit. Consequently, no evaporation will take place in such a vacuum unless the water be warmer than 101 degrees Fahrenheit, provided there is no air leakage. The qualification in regard to air is necessary, for the sake of exactness, for the following reason: In any given space the total actual pressure is made up of the combined pressures of all the gases present. If the total pressure ("vacuum") is 2 inches, and there is no air present, it is all produced by the water vapor (which saturates the space at 101 degrees Fahrenheit); but if some air is present and the total pressure is still maintained at 2 inches, then there must be less vapor present, since the air is producing part of the pressure and the space is no longer saturated at the given temperature. Consequently further evaporation may occur, with a corresponding lowering of the temperature of the water, until a balance is again reached. Without further explanation it is easy to see that but little water can be evaporated by a vacuum alone without addition of heat, and that the prevalent idea that a vacuum can of itself produce evaporation is a fallacy. If heat be supplied to the water, however, either by conduction or radiation, evaporation will take place in direct proportion to the amount of heat supplied, so long as the pressure is kept down by the vacuum pump.

At 30 inches of mercury pressure (one atmosphere) the space becomes saturated with vapor and equilibrium is established at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. If heat be now supplied to the water, however, evaporation will take place in proportion to the amount of heat supplied, so long as the pressure remains that of one atmosphere, just as in the case of the vacuum. Evaporation in this condition, where the vapor pressure at the temperature of the water is equal to the gas pressure on the water, is commonly called "boiling," and the saturated vapor entirely displaces the air under continuous operation. Whenever the space is not saturated with vapor, whether air is present or not, evaporation will take place, by boiling if no air be present or by diffusion under the presence of air, until an equilibrium between temperature and vapor pressure is resumed.

Relative humidity is simply the ratio of the actual vapor pressure present in a given space to the vapor pressure when the space is saturated with vapor at the given temperature. It matters not whether air be present or not. One hundred per cent humidity means that the space contains all the vapor which it can hold at the given temperature—it is saturated. Thus at 100 per cent humidity and 212 degrees Fahrenheit the space is saturated, and since the pressure of saturated vapor at this temperature is one atmosphere, no air can be present under these conditions. If, however, the total pressure at this temperature were 20 pounds (5 pounds gauge), then it would mean that there was 5 pounds air pressure present in addition to the vapor, yet the space would still be saturated at the given temperature. Again, if the temperature were 101 degrees Fahrenheit, the pressure of saturated vapor would be only 1 pound, and the additional pressure of 14 pounds, if the total pressure were atmospheric, would be made up of air. In order to have no air present and the space still saturated at 101 degrees Fahrenheit, the total pressure must be reduced to 1 pound by a vacuum pump. Fifty per cent relative humidity, therefore, signifies that only half the amount of vapor required to saturate the space at the given temperature is present. Thus at 212 degrees Fahrenheit temperature the vapor pressure would only be 71⁄2pounds (vacuum of 15 inches gauge). If the total pressure were atmospheric, then the additional 71⁄2 pounds would be simply air.

"Live steam" is simply water-saturated vapor at a pressure usually above atmospheric. We may just as truly have live steam at pressures less than atmospheric, at a vacuum of 28 inches for instance. Only in the latter case its temperature would be lower, viz., 101 degrees Fahrenheit.

Superheated steam is nothing more than water vapor at a relative humidity less than saturation, but is usually considered at pressures above atmospheric, and in the absence of air. The atmosphere at, say, 50 per cent relative humidity really contains superheated steam or vapor, the only difference being that it is at a lower temperature and pressure than we are accustomed to think of in speaking of superheated steam, and it has air mixed with it to make up the deficiency in pressure below the atmosphere.

Two things should now be clear; that evaporation is produced by heat and that the presence or absence of air does not influence the amount of evaporation. It does, however, influence the rate of evaporation, which is retarded by the presence of air. The main things influencing evaporation are, first, the quantity of heat supplied and, second, the relative humidity of the immediately surrounding space.

Drying by Superheated Steam

What this term really signifies is simply water vapor in the absence of air in a condition of less than saturation. Kilns of this type are, properly speaking, vapor kilns, and usually operate at atmospheric pressure, but may be used at greater pressures or at less pressures. As stated before, the vapor present in the air at any humidity less than saturation is really "superheated steam," only at a lower pressure than is ordinarily understood by this term, and mixed with air. The main argument in favor of this process seems to be based on the idea that steam is moist heat. This is true, however, only when the steam is near saturation. When it is superheated it is just as dry as air containing the same relative humidity. For instance, steam at atmospheric pressure and heated to 248 degrees Fahrenheit has a relative humidity of only 50 per cent and is just as dry as air containing the same humidity. If heated to 306 degrees Fahrenheit, its relative humidity is reduced to 20 per cent; that is to say, the ratio of its actual vapor pressure (one atmosphere) to the pressure of saturated vapor at this temperature (five atmospheres) is 1:5, or 20 per cent. Superheated vapor in the absence of air, however, parts with its heat with great rapidity and finally becomes saturated when it has lost all of its ability to cause evaporation. In this respect it is more moist than air when it comes in contact with bodies which are at a lower temperature. When saturated steam is used to heat the lumber it can raise the temperature of the latter to its own temperature, but cannot produce evaporation unless, indeed, the pressure is varied. Only by the heat supplied above the temperature of saturation can evaporation be produced.

Impregnation Methods

Methods of partially overcoming the shrinkage by impregnation of the cell walls with organic materials closely allied to the wood substance itself are in use. In one of these which has been patented, sugar is used as the impregnating material, which is subsequently hardened or "caramelized" by heating. Experiments which the United States Forest Service has made substantiate the claims that the sugar does greatly reduce the shrinkage of the wood; but the use of impregnation processes is determined rather from a financial economic standpoint than by the physical result obtained.

Another process consists in passing a current of electricity through the wet boards or through the green logs before sawing. It is said that the ligno cellulose and the sap are thus transformed by electrolysis, and that the wood subsequently dries more rapidly.

Preliminary Treatments

In many dry kiln operations, especially where the kilns are not designed for treatments with very moist air, the wood is allowed to air-season from several months to a year or more before running it into the dry kiln. In this way the surface dries below its fibre-saturation point and becomes hardened or "set"