An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith (ebook reader with highlighter txt) 📖
- Author: Adam Smith
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value of its own annual produce. What in the days of its prosperity had been
saved from that annual produce, and employed in purchasing gold and silver.
will contribute, for some little time, to support its consumption in
adversity. The exportation of gold and silver is, in this case, not the
cause, but the effect of its declension, and may even, for some little time,
alleviate the misery of that declension.
The quantity of money, on the contrary, must in every country naturally
increase as the value of the annual produce increases. The value of the
consumable goods annually circulated within the society being greater, will
require a greater quantity of money to circulate them. A part of the
increased produce, therefore, will naturally be employed in purchasing,
wherever it is to be had, the additional quantity of gold and silver
necessary for circulating the rest. The increase of those metals will, in
this case, be the effect, not the cause, of the public prosperity. Gold and
silver are purchased everywhere in the same manner. The food, clothing, and
lodging, the revenue and maintenance, of all those whose labour or stock is
employed in bringing them from the mine to the market, is the price paid for
them in Peru as well as in England. The country which has this price to pay,
will never belong without the quantity of those metals which it has occasion
for; and no country will ever long retain a quantity which it has no
occasion for.
Whatever, therefore, we may imagine the real wealth and revenue of a country
to consist in, whether in the value of the annual produce of its land and
labour, as plain reason seems to dictate, or in the quantity of the precious
metals which circulate within it, as vulgar prejudices suppose ; in either
view of the matter, every prodigal appears to be a public enemy, and every
frugal man a public benefactor.
The effects of misconduct are often the same as those of prodigality. Every
injudicious and unsuccessful project in agriculture, mines, fisheries,
trade, or manufactures, tends in the same manner to diminish the funds
destined for the maintenance of productive labour. In every such project,
though the capital is consumed by productive hands only, yet as, by the
injudicious manner in which they are employed, they do not reproduce the
full value of their consumption, there must always be some diminution in
what would otherwise have been the productive funds of the society.
It can seldom happen, indeed, that the circumstances of a great nation can
be much affected either by the prodigality or misconduct of individuals; the
profusion or imprudence of some being always more than compensated by the
frugality and good conduct of others.
With regard to profusion, the principle which prompts to expense is the
passion for present enjoyment; which, though sometimes violent and very
difficult to be restrained, is in general only momentary and occasional. But
the principle which prompts to save, is the desire of bettering our condition; a desire
which, though generally calm and dispassionate, comes with us from the womb,
and never leaves us till we go into the grave. In the whole interval which
separates those two moments, there is scarce, perhaps, a single instance, in
which any man is so perfectly and completely satisfied with his situation,
as to be without any wish of alteration or improvement of any kind. An
augmentation of fortune is the means by which the greater part of men
propose and wish to better their condition. It is the means the most vulgar
and the most obvious; and the most likely way of augmenting their fortune,
is to save and accumulate some part of what they acquire, either regularly
and annually, or upon some extraordinary occasion. Though the principle
of expense, therefore, prevails in almost all men upon some occasions, and in
some men upon almost all occasions ; yet in the greater part of men, taking
the whole course of their life at an average, the principle of frugality
seems not only to predominate, but to predominate very greatly.
With regard to misconduct, the number of prudent and successful undertakings
is everywhere much greater than that of injudicious and unsuccessful ones.
After all our complaints of the frequency of bankruptcies, the unhappy men
who fall into this misfortune, make but a very small part of the whole
number engaged in trade, and all other sorts of business; not much more,
perhaps, than one in a thousand. Bankruptcy is, perhaps, the greatest and
most humiliating calamity which can befal an innocent man. The greater part
of men, therefore, are sufficiently careful to avoid it. Some, indeed, do
not avoid it; as some do not avoid the gallows.
Great nations are never impoverished by private, though they sometimes are
by public prodigality and misconduct. The whole, or almost the whole public
revenue is, in most countries, employed in maintaining unproductive hands.
Such are the people who compose a numerous and splendid court, a great
ecclesiastical establishment, great fleets and armies, who in time of peace
produce nothing, and in time of war acquire nothing which can compensate the
expense of maintaining them, even while the war lasts. Such people, as they
themselves produce nothing, are all maintained by the produce of other men’s
labour. When multiplied, therefore, to an unnecessary number, they may in a
particular year consume so great a share of this produce, as not to leave a
sufficiency for maintaining the productive labourers, who should reproduce
it next year. The next year’s produce, therefore, will be less than that of
the foregoing ; and if the same disorder should continue, that of the third
year will be still less than that of the second. Those unproductive hands
who should be maintained by a part only of the spare revenue of the people,
may consume so great a share of their whole revenue, and thereby oblige so
great a number to encroach upon their capitals, upon the funds destined for
the maintenance of productive labour, that all the frugality and good
conduct of individuals may not be able to compensate the waste and
degradation of produce occasioned by this violent and forced encroachment.
This frugality and good conduct, however, is, upon most occasions, it
appears from experience, sufficient to compensate, not only the private
prodigality and misconduct of individuals, but the public extravagance of
government. The uniform, constant, and uninterrupted effort of every man to
better his condition, the principle from which public and national, as well
as private opulence is originally derived,is frequently powerful enough to
maintain the natural progress of things towards improvement, in spite both
of the extravagance of government, and of the greatest errors of
administration. Like the unknown principle of animal life, it frequently
restores health and vigour to the constitution, in spite not only of the
disease, but of the absurd prescriptions of the doctor.
The annual produce of the land and labour of any nation can be increased in
its value by no other means, but by increasing either the number of its
productive labourers, or the productive powers of those labourers who had
before been employed. The number of its productive labourers, it is evident,
can never be much increased, but in consequence of an increase of capital,
or of the funds destined for maintaining them. The productive powers of the
same number of labourers cannot be increased, but in consequence either of
some addition and improvement to those machines and instruments which
facilitate and abridge labour, or of more proper division and distribution
of employment. In either case, an additional capital is almost always
required. It is by means of an additional capital only, that the undertaker
of any work can either provide his workmen with better machinery, or make a
more proper distribution of employment among them. When the work to be done
consists of a number of parts, to keep every man constantly employed in one
way, requires a much greater capital than where every man is occasionally
employed in every different part of the work. When we compare, therefore,
the state of a nation at two different periods, and find that the annual
produce of its land and labour is evidently greater at the latter than at
the former, that its lands are better cultivated, its manufactures more
numerous and more flourishing, and its trade more extensive; we may be
assured that its capital must have increased during the interval between
those two periods, and that more must have been added to it by the good
conduct of some, than had been taken from it either by the private
misconduct of others, or by the public extravagance of government. But we
shall find this to have been the case of almost all nations, in all
tolerably quiet and peaceable times, even of those who have not enjoyed the
most prudent and parsimonious governments. To form a right judgment of it,
indeed, we must compare the state of the country at periods somewhat distant
from one another. The progress is frequently so gradual, that, at near
periods, the improvement is not only not sensible, but, from the declension
either of certain branches of industry, or of certain districts of the
country, things which sometimes happen, though the country in general is in
great prosperity, there frequently arises a suspicion, that the riches and
industry of the whole are decaying.
The annual produce of the land and labour of England, for example, is
certainly much greater than it was a little more than a century ago, at the
restoration of Charles II. Though at present few people, I believe, doubt of
this, yet during this period five years have seldom passed away, in which
some book or pamphlet has not been published, written, too, with such
abilities as to gain some authority with the public, and pretending to
demonstrate that the wealth of the nation was fast declining; that the
country was depopulated, agriculture neglected, manufactures decaying, and
trade undone. Nor have these publications been all party pamphlets, the
wretched offspring of falsehood and venality. Many of them have been written
by very candid and very intelligent people, who wrote nothing but what they
believed, and for no other reason but because they believed it.
The annual produce of the land and labour of England, again, was certainly
much greater at the Restoration than we can suppose it to have been about a
hundred years before, at the accession of Elizabeth. At this period, too, we
have all reason to believe, the country was much more advanced in
improvement, than it had been about a century before, towards the close of
the dissensions between the houses of York and Lancaster. Even then it was,
probably, in a better condition than it had been at the Norman conquest: and
at the Norman conquest, than during the confusion of the Saxon heptarchy.
Even at this early period, it was certainly a more improved country than at
the invasion of Julius Caesar, when its inhabitants were nearly in the same
state with the savages in North America.
In each of those periods, however, there was not only much private and
public profusion, many expensive and unnecessary wars, great perversion of
the annual produce from maintaining productive to maintain unproductive
hands; but sometimes, in the confusion of civil discord, such absolute waste
and destruction of stock, as might be supposed, not only to retard, as it
certainly did, the natural accumulation of riches, but to have left the
country, at the end of the period, poorer than at the beginning. Thus, in
the happiest and most fortunate period of them all, that which has passed
since the Restoration, how many disorders and misfortunes have occurred,
which, could they have been foreseen, not only the
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