An Introductory Course of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Henry P. Talbot (good short books .TXT) 📖

"head" in a stream of water; second, current strength, which is measured in amperes, and corresponds to the volume of water passing a cross-section of a stream in a given time interval; and third, the resistance of the conducting medium, which is measured in ohms. The relation between these three factors is expressed by Ohm's law, namely, that !I = E/R!, when I is current strength, E potential, and R resistance. It is plain that, for a constant resistance, the strength of the current and its potential are mutually and directly interdependent.

As already stated, the applied electrical potential determines whether or not deposition of a metal upon an electrode actually occurs. The current strength determines the rate of deposition and the physical characteristics of the deposit. The resistance of the solution is generally so small as to fall out of practical consideration.

Approximate deposition-potentials have been determined for a number of the metallic elements, and also for hydrogen and some of the acid-forming radicals. The values given below are those required for deposition from normal solutions at ordinary temperatures with reference to a hydrogen electrode. They must be regarded as approximate, since several disturbing factors and some secondary reactions render difficult their exact application under the conditions of analysis. They are:

Zn Cd Fe Ni Pb H Cu Sb Hg Ag SO_{4} +0.77 +0.42 +0.34 +0.33 +0.13 0 -0.34 -0.67 -0.76 -0.79 +1.90

From these data it is evident that in order to deposit copper from a normal solution of copper sulphate a minimum potential equal to the algebraic sum of the deposition-potentials of copper ions and sulphate ions must be applied, that is, +1.56 volts. The deposition of zinc from a solution of zinc sulphate would require +2.67 volts, but, since the deposition of hydrogen from sulphuric acid solution requires only +1.90 volts, the quantitative deposition of zinc by electrolysis from a sulphuric acid solution of a zinc salt is not practicable. On the other hand, silver, if present in a solution of copper sulphate, would deposit with the copper.

The foregoing examples suffice to illustrate the application of the principle of deposition potentials, but it must further be noted that the values stated apply to normal solutions of the compounds in question, that is, to solutions of considerable concentrations. As the concentration of the ions diminishes, and hence fewer ions approach the electrodes, somewhat higher voltages are required to attract and discharge them. From this it follows that the concentrations should be kept as high as possible to effect complete deposition in the least practicable time, or else the potentials applied must be progressively increased as deposition proceeds. In practice, the desired result is obtained by starting with small volumes of solution, using as large an electrode surface as possible, and by stirring the solution to bring the ions in contact with the electrodes. This is, in general, a more convenient procedure than that of increasing the potential of the current during electrolysis, although that method is also used.

As already stated, those ions in a solution of electrolytes will first be discharged which have the lowest deposition potentials, and so long as these ions are present around the electrode in considerable concentration they, almost alone, are discharged, but, as their concentration diminishes, other ions whose deposition potentials are higher but still within that of the current applied, will also begin to separate. For example, from a nitric acid solution of copper nitrate, the copper ions will first be discharged at the cathode, but as they diminish in concentration hydrogen ions from the acid (or water) will be also discharged. Since the hydrogen thus liberated is a reducing agent, the nitric acid in the solution is slowly reduced to ammonia, and it may happen that if the current is passed through for a long time, such a solution will become alkaline. Oxygen is liberated at the anode, but, since there is no oxidizable substance present around that electrode, it escapes as oxygen gas. It should be noted that, in general, the changes occurring at the cathode are reductions, while those at the anode are oxidations.

For analytical purposes, solutions of nitrates or sulphates of the metals are preferable to those of the chlorides, since liberated chlorine attacks the electrodes. In some cases, as for example, that of silver, solution of salts forming complex ions, like that of the double cyanide of silver and potassium, yield better metallic deposits.

Most metals are deposited as such upon the cathode; a few, notably lead and manganese, separate in the form of dioxides upon the anode. It is evidently important that the deposited material should be so firmly adherent that it can be washed, dried, and weighed without loss in handling. To secure these conditions it is essential that the current density (that is, the amount of current per unit of area of the electrodes) shall not be too high. In prescribing analytical conditions it is customary to state the current strength in "normal densities" expressed in amperes per 100 sq. cm. of electrode surface, as, for example, "N.D_{100} = 2 amps."

If deposition occurs too rapidly, the deposit is likely to be spongy or loosely adherent and falls off on subsequent treatment. This places a practical limit to the current density to be employed, for a given electrode surface. The cause of the unsatisfactory character of the deposit is apparently sometimes to be found in the coincident liberation of considerable hydrogen and sometimes in the failure of the rapidly deposited material to form a continuous adherent surface. The effect of rotating electrodes upon the character of the deposit is referred to below.

The negative ions of an electrolyte are attracted to the anode and are discharged on contact with it. Anions such as the chloride ion yield chlorine atoms, from which gaseous chlorine molecules are formed and escape. The radicals which compose such ions as NO_{3}^{-} or SO_{4}^{—} are not capable of independent existence after discharge, and break down into oxygen and N_{2}O_{5} and SO_{3} respectively. The oxygen escapes and the anhydrides, reacting with water, re-form nitric and sulphuric acids.

The law of Faraday expresses the relation between current strength and the quantities of the decomposition products which, under constant conditions, appear at the electrodes, namely, that a given quantity of electricity, acting for a given time, causes the separation of chemically equivalent quantities of the various elements or radicals. For example, since 107.94 grams of silver is equivalent to 1.008 grams of hydrogen, and that in turn to 8 grams of oxygen, or 31.78 grams of copper, the quantity of electricity which will cause the deposit of 107.94 grams of silver in a given time will also separate the weights just indicated of the other substances. Experiments show that a current of one ampere passing for one second, i.e., a coulomb of electricity, causes the deposition of 0.001118 gram of silver from a normal solution of a silver salt. The number of coulombs required to deposit 107.94 grams is 107.94/0.001118 or 96,550 and the same number of coulombs will also cause the separation of 1.008 grams of hydrogen, 8 grams of oxygen or 31.78 grams of copper. While it might at first appear that Faraday's law could thus be used as a basis for the calculation of the time required for the deposition of a given quantity of an electrolyte from solution, it must be remembered that the law expresses what occurs when the concentration of the ions in the solution is kept constant, as, for example, when the anode in a silver salt solution is a plate of metallic silver. Under the conditions of electro-analysis the concentration of the ions is constantly diminishing as deposition proceeds and the time actually required for complete deposition of a given weight of material by a current of constant strength is, therefore, greater than that calculated on the basis of the law as stated above.

The electrodes employed in electro-analysis are almost exclusively of platinum, since that metal alone satisfactorily resists chemical action of the electrolytes, and can be dried and weighed without change in composition. The platinum electrodes may be used in the form of dishes, foil or gauze. The last, on account of the ease of circulation of the electrolyte, its relatively large surface in proportion to its weight and the readiness with which it can be washed and dried, is generally preferred.

Many devices have been described by the use of which the electrode upon which deposition occurs can be mechanically rotated. This has an effect parallel to that of greatly increasing the electrode surface and also provides a most efficient means of stirring the solution. With such an apparatus the amperage may be increased to 5 or even 10 amperes and depositions completed with great rapidity and accuracy. It is desirable, whenever practicable, to provide a rotating or stirring device, since, for example, the time consumed in the deposition of the amount of copper usually found in analysis may be reduced from the 20 to 24 hours required with stationary electrodes, and unstirred solutions, to about one half hour.

DETERMINATION OF COPPER AND LEAD

PROCEDURE.—Weigh out two portions of about 0.5 gram each (Note 1) into tall, slender lipless beakers of about 100 cc. capacity. Dissolve the metal in a solution of 5 cc. of dilute nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) and 5 cc. of water, heating gently, and keeping the beaker covered. When the sample has all dissolved (Note 2), wash down the sides of the beaker and the bottom of the watch-glass with water and dilute the solution to about 50 cc. Carefully heat to boiling and boil for a minute or two to expel nitrous fumes.

Meanwhile, four platinum electrodes, two anodes and two cathodes, should be cleaned by dipping in dilute nitric acid, washing with water and finally with 95 per cent alcohol (Note 3). The alcohol may be ignited and burned off. The electrodes are then cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Connect the electrodes with the binding posts (or other device for connection with the electric circuit) in such a way that the copper will be deposited upon the electrode with the larger surface, which is made the cathode. The beaker containing the solution should then be raised into place from below the electrodes until the latter reach nearly to the bottom of the beaker. The support for the beaker must be so arranged that it can be easily raised or lowered.

If the electrolytic apparatus is provided with a mechanism for the rotation of the electrode or stirring of the electrolyte, proceed as follows: Arrange the resistance in the circuit to provide a direct current of about one ampere. Pass this current through the solution to be electrolyzed, and start the rotating mechanism. Keep the beaker covered as completely as possible, using a split watch-glass (or other device) to avoid loss by spattering. When the solution is colorless, which is usually the case after about 35 minutes, rinse off the cover glass, wash down the sides of the beaker, add about 0.30 gram of urea and continue the electrolysis for another five minutes (Notes 4 and 5).

If stationary electrodes are employed, the current strength should be about 0.1 ampere, which may, after 12 to 15 hours, be increased to 0.2 ampere. The time required for complete deposition is usually from 20 to 24 hours. It is advisable to add 5 cc. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) if the electrolysis extends over this length of time. No urea is added in this case.

When the deposition of the copper appears to be complete, stop the rotating mechanism and slowly lower the beaker with the left hand, directing at the same time a stream of water from a wash bottle on both electrodes. Remove the beaker, shut off the current, and, if necessary, complete the washing of the electrodes (Note 6). Rinse the electrodes cautiously with alcohol and heat them in a hot closet until the alcohol has just evaporated, but no longer, since the copper is likely to oxidize at the higher temperature. (The alcohol may be removed by ignition if care is taken to keep the electrodes in motion in the air so that the copper deposit is not too strongly heated at any one point.)

Test the solution in the beaker for copper as follows, remembering that it is to be used for subsequent determinations of iron and zinc: Remove about 5 cc. and add a slight excess of ammonia. Compare the mixture with some distilled water, holding both above a white surface. The solution should not show any tinge of blue. If the presence of copper is indicated, add the test portion to the main solution, evaporate the whole to a volume of about 100 cc., and again electrolyze with