An Introductory Course of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Henry P. Talbot (good short books .TXT) 📖

term !chlorimetry! comprise those employed to determine chlorine, hypochlorites, bromine, and hypobromites. The reagent employed is sodium arsenite in the presence of sodium bicarbonate. The reaction in the case of the hypochlorites is

NaClO + Na_{3}AsO_{3} —> Na_{3}AsO_{4} + NaCl.

The sodium arsenite may be prepared from pure arsenious oxide, as described below, and is stable for considerable periods; but commercial oxide requires resublimation to remove arsenic sulphide, which may be present in small quantity. To prepare the solution, dissolve about 5 grams of the powdered oxide, accurately weighed, in 10 cc. of a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, dilute the solution to 300 cc., and make it faintly acid with dilute hydrochloric acid. Add 30 grams of sodium bicarbonate dissolved in a little water, and dilute the solution to exactly 1000 cc. in a measuring flask. Transfer the solution to a dry liter bottle and mix thoroughly.

It is possible to dissolve the arsenious oxide directly in a solution of sodium bicarbonate, with gentle warming, but solution in sodium hydroxide takes place much more rapidly, and the excess of the hydroxide is readily neutralized by hydrochloric acid, with subsequent addition of the bicarbonate to maintain neutrality during the titration.

The indicator required for this process is made by dipping strips of filter paper in a starch solution prepared as described on page 76, to which 1 gram of potassium iodide has been added. These strips are allowed to drain and spread upon a watch-glass until dry. When touched by a drop of the solution the paper turns blue until the hypochlorite has all been reduced and an excess of the arsenite has been added.

DETERMINATION OF THE AVAILABLE CHLORINE IN BLEACHING POWDER

Bleaching powder consists mainly of a calcium compound which is a derivative of both hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. Its formula is CaClOCl. Its use as a bleaching or disinfecting agent, or as a source of chlorine, depends upon the amount of hypochlorous acid which it yields when treated with a stronger acid. It is customary to express the value of bleaching powder in terms of "available chlorine," by which is meant the chlorine present as hypochlorite, but not the chlorine present as chloride.

PROCEDURE.—Weigh out from a stoppered test tube into a porcelain mortar about 3.5 grams of bleaching powder (Note 1). Triturate the powder in the mortar with successive portions of water until it is well ground and wash the contents into a 500 cc. measuring flask (Note 2). Fill the flask to the mark with water and shake thoroughly. Measure off 25 cc. of this semi-solution in a measuring flask, or pipette, observing the precaution that the liquid removed shall contain approximately its proportion of suspended matter.

Empty the flask or pipette into a beaker and wash it out. Run in the arsenite solution from a burette until no further reaction takes place on the starch-iodide paper when touched by a drop of the solution of bleaching powder. Repeat the titration, using a second 25 cc. portion.

From the volume of solution required to react with the bleaching powder, calculate the percentage of available chlorine in the latter, assuming the titration reaction to be that between chlorine and arsenious oxide:

As_{4}O_{6} + 4Cl_{2} + 4H_{2}O —> 2As_{2}O_{5} + 8HCl

Note that only one twentieth of the original weight of bleaching powder enters into the reaction.

[Note 1: The powder must be triturated until it is fine, otherwise the lumps will inclose calcium hypochlorite, which will fail to react with the arsenious acid. The clear supernatant liquid gives percentages which are below, and the sediment percentages which are above, the average. The liquid measured off should, therefore, carry with it its proper proportion of the sediment, so far as that can be brought about by shaking the solution just before removal of the aliquot part for titration.]

[Note 2: Bleaching powder is easily acted upon by the carbonic acid in the air, which liberates the weak hypochlorous acid. This, of course, results in a loss of available chlorine. The original material for analysis should be kept in a closed container and protected form the air as far as possible. It is difficult to obtain analytical samples which are accurately representative of a large quantity of the bleaching powder. The procedure, as outlined, will yield results which are sufficiently exact for technical purposes.]

III. PRECIPITATION METHODS DETERMINATION OF SILVER BY THE THIOCYANATE PROCESS

The addition of a solution of potassium or ammonium thiocyanate to one of silver in nitric acid causes a deposition of silver thiocyanate as a white, curdy precipitate. If ferric nitrate is also present, the slightest excess of the thiocyanate over that required to combine with the silver is indicated by the deep red which is characteristic of the thiocyanate test for iron.

The reactions involved are:

AgNO_{3} + KSCN —> AgSCN + KNO_{3}, 3KSCN + Fe(NO_{3}){3} —> Fe(SCN){3} + 3KNO_{3}.

The ferric thiocyanate differs from the great majority of salts in that it is but very little dissociated in aqueous solutions, and the characteristic color appears to be occasioned by the formation of the un-ionized ferric salt.

The normal solution of potassium thiocyanate should contain an amount of the salt per liter of solution which would yield sufficient (CNS)^{-} to combine with one gram of hydrogen to form HCNS, i.e., a gram-molecular weight of the salt or 97.17 grams. If the ammonium thiocyanate is used, the amount is 76.08 grams. To prepare the solution for this determination, which should be approximately 0.05 N, dissolve about 5 grams of potassium thiocyanate, or 4 grams of ammonium thiocyanate, in a small amount of water; dilute this solution to 1000 cc. in a liter bottle and mix as usual.

Prepare 20 cc. of a saturated solution of ferric alum and add 5 cc. of dilute nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.20). About 5 cc. of this solution should be used as an indicator.

STANDARDIZATION

PROCEDURE.—Crush a small quantity of silver nitrate crystals in a mortar (Note 1). Transfer them to a watch-glass and dry them for an hour at 110°C., protecting them from dust or other organic matter (Note 2). Weigh out two portions of about 0.5 gram each and dissolve them in 50 cc. of water. Add 10 cc. of dilute nitric acid which has been recently boiled to expel the lower oxides of nitrogen, if any, and then add 5 cc. of the indicator solution. Run in the thiocyanate solution from a burette, with constant stirring, allowing the precipitate to settle occasionally to obtain an exact recognition of the end-point, until a faint red tinge can be detected in the solution.

From the data obtained, calculate the relation of the thiocyanate solution to the normal.

[Note 1: The thiocyanate cannot be accurately weighed; its solutions must, therefore, be standardized against silver nitrate (or pure silver), either in the form of a standard solution or in small, weighed portions.]

[Note 2: The crystals of silver nitrate sometimes inclose water which is expelled on drying. If the nitrate has come into contact with organic bodies it suffers a reduction and blackens during the heating.

It is plain that a standard solution of silver nitrate (made by weighing out the crystals) is convenient or necessary if many titrations of this nature are to be made. In the absence of such a solution the liability of passing the end-point is lessened by setting aside a small fraction of the silver solution, to be added near the close of the titration.]

DETERMINATION OF SILVER IN COIN

PROCEDURE.— Weigh out two portions of the coin of about 0.5 gram each. Dissolve them in 15 cc. of dilute nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) and boil until all the nitrous compounds are expelled (Note 1). Cool the solution, dilute to 50 cc., and add 5 cc. of the indicator solution, and titrate with the thiocyanate to the appearance of the faint red coloration (Note 2).

From the corrected volume of the thiocyanate solution required, calculate the percentage of silver in the coin.

[Note 1: The reaction with silver may be carried out in nitric acid solutions and in the presence of copper, if the latter does not exceed 70 per cent. Above that percentage it is necessary to add silver in known quantity to the solution. The liquid must be cold at the time of titration and entirely free from nitrous compounds, as these sometimes cause a reddening of the indicator solution. All utensils, distilled water, the nitric acid and the beakers must be free from chlorides, as the presence of these will cause precipitation of silver chloride, thereby introducing an error.]

[Note 2: The solution containing the silver precipitate, as well as those from the standardization, should be placed in the receptacle for "silver residues" as a matter of economy.]

PART III GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS GENERAL DIRECTIONS

Gravimetric analyses involve the following principal steps: first, the weighing of the sample; second, the solution of the sample; third, the separation of some substance from solution containing, or bearing a definite relation to, the constituent to be measured, under conditions which render this separation as complete as possible; and finally, the segregation of that substance, commonly by filtration, and the determination of its weight, or that of some stable product formed from it on ignition. For example, the gravimetric determination of aluminium is accomplished by solution of the sample, by precipitation in the form of hydroxide, collection of the hydroxide upon a filter, complete removal by washing of all foreign soluble matter, and the burning of the filter and ignition of the precipitate to aluminium oxide, in which condition it is weighed.

Among the operations which are common to nearly all gravimetric analyses are precipitation, washing of precipitates, ignition of precipitates, and the use of desiccators. In order to avoid burdensome repetitions in the descriptions of the various gravimetric procedures which follow, certain general instructions are introduced at this point. These instructions must, therefore, be considered to be as much a part of all subsequent procedures as the description of apparatus, reagents, or manipulations.

The analytical balance, the fundamentally important instrument in gravimetric analysis, has already been described on pages 11 to 15.

PRECIPITATION

For successful quantitative precipitations those substances are selected which are least soluble under conditions which can be easily established, and which separate from solution in such a state that they can be filtered readily and washed free from admixed material. In general, the substances selected are the same as those already familiar to the student of Qualitative Analysis.

When possible, substances are selected which separate in crystalline form, since such substances are less likely to clog the pores of filter paper and can be most quickly washed. In order to increase the size of the crystals, which further promotes filtration and washing, it is often desirable to allow a precipitate to remain for some time in contact with the solution from which it has separated. The solution is often kept warm during this period of "digestion." The small crystals gradually disappear and the larger crystals increase in size, probably as the result of the force known as surface tension, which tends to reduce the surface of a given mass of material to a minimum, combined with a very slightly greater solubility of small crystals as compared with the larger ones.

Amorphous substances, such as ferric hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide, or silicic acid, separate in a gelatinous form and are relatively difficult to filter and wash. Substances of this class also exhibit a tendency to form, with pure water, what are known as colloidal solutions. To prevent this as far as possible, they are washed with solutions of volatile salts, as will be described in some of the following procedures.

In all precipitations the reagent should be added slowly, with constant stirring, and should be hot when circumstances permit. The slow addition is less likely to occasion contamination of the precipitate by the inclosure of other substances which may be in the solution, or of the reagent itself.

FUNNELS AND FILTERS

Filtration in analytical processes is most commonly effected through paper filters. In special cases these may be advantageously replaced by an asbestos filter in a perforated porcelain or platinum crucible, commonly known, from its originator, as a "Gooch filter." The operation and use of a filter of this type is described on page 103. Porous crucibles of a material known as alundum may also be employed to advantage in special cases.

The glass funnels selected for use with paper filters should have an angle as near 60° as possible, and a narrow stem about six inches in length. The filters employed should be washed filters, i.e., those which have been treated with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, and which on incineration leave a very small and definitely known weight of ash, generally about .00003 gram. Such filters are readily obtainable on the