An Introductory Course of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Henry P. Talbot (good short books .TXT) 📖

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The filter should be carefully folded to fit the funnel according to either of the two well-established methods described in the Appendix. It should always be placed so that the upper edge of the paper is about one fourth inch below the top of the funnel. Under no circumstances should the filter extend above the edge of the funnel, as it is then utterly impossible to effect complete washing.

To test the efficiency of the filter, fill it with distilled water. This water should soon fill the stem completely, forming a continuous column of liquid which, by its hydrostatic pressure, produces a gentle suction, thus materially promoting the rapidity of filtration. Unless the filter allows free passage of water under these conditions, it is likely to give much trouble when a precipitate is placed upon it.

The use of a suction pump to promote filtration is rarely altogether advantageous in quantitative analysis, if paper filters are employed. The tendency of the filter to break, unless the point of the filter paper is supported by a perforated porcelain cone or a small "hardened filter" of parchment, and the tendency of the precipitates to pass through the pores of the filter, more than compensate for the possible gain in time. On the other hand, filtration by suction may be useful in the case of precipitates which do not require ignition before weighing, or in the case of precipitates which are to be discarded without weighing. This is best accomplished with the aid of the special apparatus called a Gooch filter referred to above.

FILTRATION AND WASHING OF PRECIPITATES

Solutions should be filtered while hot, as far as possible, since the passage of a liquid through the pores of a filter is retarded by friction, and this, for water at 100°C., is less than one sixth of the resistance at 0°C.

When the filtrate is received in a beaker, the stem of the funnel should touch the side of the receiving vessel to avoid loss by spattering. Neglect of this precaution is a frequent source of error.

The vessels which contain the initial filtrate should !always! be replaced by clean ones, properly labeled, before the washing of a precipitate begins. In many instances a finely divided precipitate which shows no tendency to pass through the filter at first, while the solution is relatively dense, appears at once in the washings. Under such conditions the advantages accruing from the removal of the first filtrate are obvious, both as regards the diminished volume requiring refiltration, and also the smaller number of washings subsequently required.

Much time may often be saved by washing precipitates by decantation, i.e., by pouring over them, while still in the original vessel, considerable volumes of wash-water and allowing them to settle. The supernatant, clear wash-water is then decanted through the filter, so far as practicable without disturbing the precipitate, and a new portion of wash-water is added. This procedure can be employed to special advantage with gelatinous precipitates, which fill up the pores of the filter paper. As the medium from which the precipitate is to settle becomes less dense it subsides less readily, and it ultimately becomes necessary to transfer it to the filter and complete the washing there.

A precipitate should never completely fill a filter. The wash-water should be applied at the top of the filter, above the precipitate. It may be shown mathematically that the washing is most !rapidly! accomplished by filling the filter well to the top with wash-water each time, and allowing it to drain completely after each addition; but that when a precipitate is to be washed with the !least possible volume! of liquid the latter should be applied in repeated !small! quantities.

Gelatinous precipitates should not be allowed to dry before complete removal of foreign matter is effected. They are likely to shrink and crack, and subsequent additions of wash-water pass through these channels only.

All filtrates and wash-waters without exception must be properly tested. !This lies at the foundation of accurate work!, and the student should clearly understand that it is only by the invariable application of this rule that assurance of ultimate reliability can be secured. Every original filtrate must be tested to prove complete precipitation of the compound to be separated, and the wash-waters must also be tested to assure complete removal of foreign material. In testing the latter, the amount first taken should be but a few drops if the filtrate contains material which is to be subsequently determined. When, however, the washing of the filter and precipitate is nearly completed the amount should be increased, and for the final test not less than 3 cc. should be used.

It is impossible to trust to one's judgment with regard to the washing of precipitates; the washings from !each precipitate! of a series simultaneously treated must be tested, since the rate of washing will often differ materially under apparently similar conditions, !No exception can ever be made to this rule!.

The habit of placing a clean common filter paper under the receiving beaker during filtration is one to be commended. On this paper a record of the number of washings can very well be made as the portions of wash-water are added.

It is an excellent practice, when possible, to retain filtrates and precipitates until the completion of an analysis, in order that, in case of question, they may be examined to discover sources of error.

For the complete removal of precipitates from containing vessels, it is often necessary to rub the sides of these vessels to loosen the adhering particles. This can best be done by slipping over the end of a stirring rod a soft rubber device sometimes called a "policeman."

DESICCATORS

Desiccators should be filled with fused, anhydrous calcium chloride, over which is placed a clay triangle, or an iron triangle covered with silica tubes, to support the crucible or other utensils. The cover of the desiccator should be made air-tight by the use of a thin coating of vaseline.

Pumice moistened with concentrated sulphuric acid may be used in place of the calcium chloride, and is essential in special cases; but for most purposes the calcium chloride, if renewed occasionally and not allowed to cake together, is practically efficient and does not slop about when the desiccator is moved.

Desiccators should never remain uncovered for any length of time. The dehydrating agents rapidly lose their efficiency on exposure to the air.

CRUCIBLES

It is often necessary in quantitative analysis to employ fluxes to bring into solution substances which are not dissolved by acids. The fluxes in most common use are sodium carbonate and sodium or potassium acid sulphate. In gravimetric analysis it is usually necessary to ignite the separated substance after filtration and washing, in order to remove moisture, or to convert it through physical or chemical changes into some definite and stable form for weighing. Crucibles to be used in fusion processes must be made of materials which will withstand the action of the fluxes employed, and crucibles to be used for ignitions must be made of material which will not undergo any permanent change during the ignition, since the initial weight of the crucible must be deducted from the final weight of the crucible and product to obtain the weight of the ignited substance. The three materials which satisfy these conditions, in general, are platinum, porcelain, and silica.

Platinum crucibles have the advantage that they can be employed at high temperatures, but, on the other hand, these crucibles can never be used when there is a possibility of the reduction to the metallic state of metals like lead, copper, silver, or gold, which would alloy with and ruin the crucible. When platinum crucibles are used with compounds of arsenic or phosphorus, special precautions are necessary to prevent damage. This statement applies to both fusions and ignitions.

Fusions with sodium carbonate can be made only in platinum, since porcelain or silica crucibles are attacked by this reagent. Acid sulphate fusions, which require comparatively low temperatures, can sometimes be made in platinum, although platinum is slightly attacked by the flux. Porcelain or silica crucibles may be used with acid fluxes.

Silica crucibles are less likely to crack on heating than porcelain crucibles on account of their smaller coefficient of expansion. Ignition of substances not requiring too high a temperature may be made in porcelain or silica crucibles.

Iron, nickel or silver crucibles are used in special cases.

In general, platinum crucibles should be used whenever such use is practicable, and this is the custom in private, research or commercial laboratories. Platinum has, however, become so valuable that it is liable to theft unless constantly under the protection of the user. As constant protection is often difficult in instructional laboratories, it is advisable, in order to avoid serious monetary losses, to use porcelain or silica crucibles whenever these will give satisfactory service. When platinum utensils are used the danger of theft should always be kept in mind.

PREPARATION OF CRUCIBLES FOR USE

All crucibles, of whatever material, must always be cleaned, ignited and allowed to cool in a desiccator before weighing, since all bodies exposed to the air condense on their surfaces a layer of moisture which increases their weight. The amount and weight of this moisture varies with the humidity of the atmosphere, and the latter may change from hour to hour. The air in the desiccator (see above) is kept at a constant and low humidity by the drying agent which it contains. Bodies which remain in a desiccator for a sufficient time (usually 20-30 minutes) retain, therefore, on their surfaces a constant weight of moisture which is the same day after day, thus insuring constant conditions.

Hot objects, such as ignited crucibles, should be allowed to cool in the air until, when held near the skin, but little heat is noticeable. If this precaution is not taken, the air within the desiccator is strongly heated and expands before the desiccator is covered. As the temperature falls, the air contracts, causing a reduction of air pressure within the covered vessel. When the cover is removed (which is often rendered difficult) the inrush of air from the outside may sweep light particles out of a crucible, thus ruining an entire analysis.

Constant heating of platinum causes a slight crystallization of the surface which, if not removed, penetrates into the crucible. Gentle polishing of the surface destroys the crystalline structure and prevents further damage. If sea sand is used for this purpose, great care is necessary to keep it from the desk, since beakers are easily scratched by it, and subsequently crack on heating.

Platinum crucibles stained in use may often be cleaned by the fusion in them of potassium or sodium acid sulphate, or by heating with ammonium chloride. If the former is used, care should be taken not to heat so strongly as to expel all of the sulphuric acid, since the normal sulphates sometimes expand so rapidly on cooling as to split the crucible. The fused material should be poured out, while hot, on to a !dry! tile or iron surface.

IGNITION OF PRECIPITATES

Most precipitates may, if proper precautions are taken, be ignited without previous drying. If, however, such precipitates can be dried without loss of time to the analyst (as, for example, over night), it is well to submit them to this process. It should, nevertheless, be remembered that a partially dried precipitate often requires more care during ignition than a thoroughly moist one.

The details of the ignition of precipitates vary so much with the character of the precipitate, its moisture content, and temperature to which it is to be heated, that these details will be given under the various procedures which follow.

DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE IN SODIUM CHLORIDE

!Method A. With the Use of a Gooch Filter!

PROCEDURE.—Carefully clean a weighing-tube containing the sodium chloride, handling it as little as possible with the moist fingers, and weigh it accurately to 0.0001 gram, recording the weight at once in the notebook (see Appendix). Hold the tube over the top of a beaker (200-300 cc.), and cautiously remove the stopper, noting carefully that no particles fall from it, or from the tube, elsewhere than into the beaker. Pour out a small portion of the chloride, replace the stopper, and determine by approximate weighing how much has been removed. Continue this procedure until 0.25-0.30 gram has been taken from the tube, then weigh accurately and record the weight beneath the first in the notebook. The difference of the two weights represents the weight of the chloride taken for analysis. Again weigh a second portion of 0.25-0.30 gram into a second beaker of the same size as the first. The beakers should be plainly marked to correspond with the entries in the notebook. Dissolve each portion of the chloride in 150 cc. of distilled water and add about ten drops of dilute nitric acid (sp.